The Maya and Aztec civilizations represent two major eras in Mesoamerican history, though their peaks were separated by centuries. The Maya civilization, one of the most advanced in the ancient Americas, spanned several periods but experienced a significant decline during the Terminal Classic period. This collapse primarily affected the southern lowlands of the Maya region (modern-day Guatemala, Belize, and parts of Mexico) around the 8th to 10th centuries AD, with many cities abandoned by approximately 900 AD. Historians attribute this to a combination of factors, including overpopulation, environmental degradation (such as deforestation and drought), intense warfare, and social unrest leading to the breakdown of trade networks and political structures. However, Maya culture did not vanish entirely; the Post-Classic period (roughly 900–1519 AD) saw continued development in the northern Yucatán Peninsula, with cities like Chichen Itza and Mayapan rising to prominence until the Spanish arrival in the early 16th century.
In contrast, the Aztec (or Mexica) civilization emerged much later, rising to power in the Post-Classic period. The Aztecs migrated into central Mexico around the 13th century AD, founding their capital, Tenochtitlan, in 1325 on an island in Lake Texcoco. Their empire truly expanded after forming the Triple Alliance in 1428 with the city-states of Texcoco and Tlacopan, allowing them to conquer much of central Mexico through military campaigns, tribute systems, and strategic alliances. By the early 16th century, the Aztec Empire controlled a vast territory with a population of 5–6 million, sustained by advanced agriculture, engineering (like chinampas, or floating gardens), and a complex religious and social hierarchy. The Aztecs and remaining Maya groups had limited direct interaction due to geographical and temporal separation, though trade existed; the Aztecs never fully conquered the fragmented Post-Classic Maya polities.
The early 16th century, when the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs occurred (1519–1521), was a turbulent time for the Catholic Church in Europe, marked by internal challenges and the defense against what was perceived as heresy. This period coincided with the onset of the Protestant Reformation, initiated by Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses in 1517, which criticized Church practices like indulgences and papal authority—viewed by Catholics as heretical threats to doctrinal unity. In Spain, the political landscape was dominated by the Catholic Monarchs (Isabella I and Ferdinand II until 1516) and later Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (who ruled Spain as Charles I from 1516), who positioned themselves as defenders of Catholicism. The Spanish Inquisition, established in 1478, was a key institution for rooting out heresy, initially targeting converted Jews (conversos) and Muslims, but expanding to enforce religious orthodoxy amid growing Protestant influences.
Inter caetera (1493) decreed by Pope Alexander VI granted Spain dominion over newly discovered lands. The conquest of the Aztecs was planned and intelligence's assuredly indicated biological weaponry could become the most effective method for plundering of American wealth, and indeed half the populations rapid decay proved a superior strategy by the Spanish.(1) Post-conquest, 1571, Inquisitors should be said to have enforced apartheid on New Spain's Mexicans through concentrated suppression of heresy amid the interspersion of settlers and converts. Leaning on soft conversion after native immunity to the rare and devastating disease brought to the Americas; obligatory baptism was coupled with oppression of any indigenous religious rites and belief.
Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, the governor of Cuba, in 1518, appointed Cortés to lead an expedition to explore and trade with the Mexican mainland, but grew suspicious of Cortés' ambitions and revoked his commission just before departure in February 1519. Cortés had already prepared 11 ships, about 500 men, horses, and cannons, so defied the stay order and sailed from Santiago de Cuba. The act of insubordination that set the stage for the conquest saw Hernán Cortés defy Governor Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, but later seeking King Charles V's clemency. Under the Patronato Real, Pope Leo X (r. 1513–1521) vested the Spanish crown with control over Church affairs in the Americas, enabling missionaries to impose Christianity while enforcing a rigid social order. This mandate not only fueled cultural suppression but institutionalized racial segregation through the casta system, a hierarchical framework with Spaniard elite over-ruling their indigenous converts; often relegating natives to marginalized roles despite baptism, with the Church upholding "limpieza de sangre" (purity of blood) to bar them from priesthood or full societal integration. Amid this segregation, missionaries pursued conversion by destroying indigenous religious texts, such as Bishop Diego de Landa's infamous 1560s burning of Maya codices in Yucatán to eradicate "idolatry," yet some clergy facilitated the preservation of certain texts transcribed by educated converts such as the Popol Vuh—a K'iche' Maya creation epic—around 1554–1558, later copied by Dominican Francisco Ximénez in 1701–1704, and the Chilam Balam books, which blended Maya prophecies with Christian lore.
Pope Paul III's 1537 bull Sublimis Deus, condemned the apartheid. Official ratification from the Vatican and Spain never came however and the popular decree was slavery. Spain reaped a staggering windfall from the conquest, much of which didn’t make the Crown ledger over losses from shipwrecks like the 1715 fleet disaster or claims by pirates and rivals at sea.
The story of Hernán Cortés' conquest of the Aztec Empire unfolded from 1519 to 1521 amid the backdrop of European exploration and indigenous rivalries. Born in 1485 in Spain, Cortés was a minor noble who arrived in the New World in 1504, participating in the conquest of Cuba. In 1519, defying Governor Velázquez, he led his small force to the Yucatán coast, where he encountered Mayan groups and acquired a Nahuan interpreter; Malintzin (La Malinche).
Founding Veracruz as a base, Cortés scuttled his ships to prevent retreat, declaring loyalty to King Charles V. Marching inland, he forged alliances with Aztec tributaries resentful of tribute demands and human sacrifices, notably defeating and then allying with the Tlaxcalans after fierce battles. In November 1519, Cortés entered Tenochtitlan unopposed, welcomed by Emperor Moctezuma II, who may have seen the Spaniards as fulfilling prophecies (possibly linked to the god Quetzalcoatl). Tensions rose; Cortés took Moctezuma hostage to control the city. In 1520, Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar sent Pánfilo de Narváez to arrest Cortés for pursuing the quest and defying the stay order. Leaving Pedro de Alvarado in charge, Cortés ambushed and defeated Narváez at Cempoala, acquiescing Narváez's men into his ranks. Returning to Tenochtitlan, he found chaos as Alvarado who he'd left in charge had massacred Aztec nobles after disagreement during a festival. A rebellion was underway and Moctezuma had died (likely killed by his own people). On June 30, 1520 during the Noche Triste (Night of Sorrows) Cortés' forces fled the capital, suffering heavy losses.
Regrouping in Tlaxcala, Cortés built brigantines for a siege. Smallpox however now took its toll on the Azteca, having been delivered (incidentally) by Narváez. The Florentine Codex detailed the disease’s horror (called “hueyzahuatl” or “great leprosy”). Smallpox (Variola major) was endemic in Europe by the 16th century, with frequent outbreaks recorded since the Middle Ages.(2) Francisco Eguía is identified in multiple primary and secondary sources as the primary carrier, an enslaved African. Spanish chroniclers, including Bernal Díaz del Castillo in The True History of the Conquest of New Spain and Francisco López de Gómara in Historia de la Conquista de México, reference him as being visibly ill upon arrival. Smallpox was already in the Caribbean, upon Hispaniola (Dominican Republic/Haiti) and Cuba, where it first decimated indigenous Taíno and other groups after arrival on Spanish ships from Seville and the Canary Islands in late 1518. Seville, in the early 16th century, was Spain’s primary port for transatlantic voyages, managed by the Casa de Contratación (established 1503), which oversaw trade and exploration. Its port, along the Guadalquivir River, was a melting pot of populations from across Spain, Europe, North Africa, and West Africa, due to its role in the burgeoning African slave trade and commerce with the Mediterranean.
From May to August 1521, Cortés amassed over 100,000 indigenous allies among the satraps, and raised a blockade for the final assault on Tenochtitlan. The last ever Aztec emperor, Cuauhtémoc, surrendered on August 13, 1521.
Modern Equivalent Value of the horde seized as loot is so: ~3.2–6.4 million oz gold * $4,200/oz = ~$13.4–26.9 billion; silver minor (~16 million oz * $50/oz = ~$800 million). Total ~$14.2–27.7 billion at the present exchange rate. The Crown's share at 20% tax was only: ~$2.8–5.5 billion USD so under Charles III, the Bourbon Reforms restructured colonial administration to curb corruption and boost crown revenue. The quinto real was reduced to a décimo (10%) to discourage smuggling, and intendancies replaced corrupt officials to oversee mines. Free labor was encouraged, but mita persisted in reduced form. The New Laws (1542), Sublimis Deus (1537), Bourbon Reforms (1760s–1780s), and Independence (1810–1825) progressively reduced or ended forced labor and crown control.
Silver from mines like Potosí (Bolivia) and Zacatecas (Mexico) comprised 85% of colonial wealth extracted from Spanish America. Slaves (indigenous mita labor, African imports) and miners (often forced) worked for companies like the Real Hacienda, or private enterprises under royal licenses. Total estimated mineral resources extracted are: ~150 tons gold and 150,000–200,000 tons silver, equivalent to ~170–190 million pesos. Peaking at 16,000 tons silver 1503–1660, expanding to full period totals. Modern equivalent values of gold are: ~4.8 million oz * $4,200/oz = ~$20.2 billion; silver ~4.8–6.4 billion oz * $50/oz = ~$240–320 billion. Totaling ~$260–340 billion with the Crown's share at: ~$52–68 billion USD.
Latin American Independence Movements,1810–1825, were buoyed by colonial grievances, and by the late 18th century, Spanish America’s economic exploitation, racial hierarchies (casta system), and restricted trade under the Spanish Crown’s monopolies reached boiling point. The Bourbon Reforms (1760s–1780s) increased taxes and tightened control, alienating criollos (American-born Spaniards) who sought political power. The primary catalyst was Napoleon’s 1808 invasion of Spain and the abdication of Ferdinand VII, creating a power vacuum, as colonial juntas questioned loyalty to the French-installed Joseph Bonaparte. Enlightenment ideas and the American/French Revolutions inspired criollo elites to demand autonomy likewise. Mexico in 1810 saw Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a priest, launch the independence movement with the Grito de Dolores (September 16), rallying indigenous and mestizo peasants against Spanish rule. His revolt, though defeated in 1811, ignited widespread rebellion. By 1813–1815 José María Morelos continued the fight, pushing for racial equality and land reform, but he was captured and executed. Guerrilla warfare persisted under leaders like Vicente Guerrero, and by 1821 Agustín de Iturbide, a royalist-turned-rebel, allied with Guerrero under the Plan of Iguala, promising independence, equality, and Catholicism. The Treaty of Córdoba secured Mexico’s independence, but in ending Spanish control over Zacatecas’s silver mines output plummeted as the mita labor collapsed and infrastructure decayed; letting foreign companies take over. Across South America Juntas in Caracas, Buenos Aires, and Bogotá declared autonomy, inspired by Spain’s crisis. Early revolts (e.g., Venezuela under Francisco de Miranda) faltered against royalist counterattacks. Simón Bolívars, El Libertador campaigns across Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, won key battles like Boyacá (1819) and Carabobo (1821). José de San Martín in turn liberated Argentina and Chile (1817–1818) and met Bolívar in 1822 to plan Peru’s liberation. From 1824–1825 the Battle of Ayacucho crushed Spanish forces in Peru, freeing Potosí’s silver mines. Bolivia gained independence in 1825, named after Bolívar. Paraguay (1811) and Uruguay (1825) make up the list of over one dozen liberated Spanish colonial territories..
Footnotes:
1. The earliest documented attempts at biological warfare involving smallpox date to the 18th century, such as during the French and Indian War (1754–1763), where British forces allegedly distributed contaminated blankets to Native American tribes. In the 16th century, no such tactics are recorded in the Americas; Spanish chroniclers like Francisco de Aguilar viewed the Aztec outbreak as "God seeing fit to send the Indians smallpox". Variolation (inoculation with smallpox material) existed in parts of Asia and Africa but wasn't practiced in Europe until the 18th century and indicatively wasn't weaponized, leaving historians no choice but to accept the biological contamination as an accident.
2. Variola major is highly contagious (R0 3–6), spreading via respiratory droplets, direct contact, or fomites (e.g., scabs, bedding). Scabs from infected individuals could remain infectious for weeks to months in cool, dry conditions, without needing freezing. In theory, by collecting frozen scabs from a smallpox victim alchemists could deliberately spread the deadly disease.
