tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-52561451963360099222024-03-04T21:16:40.325-08:00GREAT BRITTANIAWritten by Jason S Jowett, sourced from historical fact. This blog may not be reproduced on whole without the authors express permissions. Copyright © 2023. Historical blog ~ thanks to Google.Jason Steven Jowetthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06299966996014985455noreply@blogger.comBlogger29125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5256145196336009922.post-22236367532808455902023-10-25T02:00:00.012-07:002023-11-16T10:00:25.340-08:00Dzungaria, Tibet, Qing, & the British Raj<p></p><p>
</p><p style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;">
<span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;">The
Ganden Phodrang was first famed by the 5th Dalai Lama (r. 1642–1682),
known for unifying the Tibetan heartland under the control of the
Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism, and after defeating the rival Kagyu
and Jonang sects, along with the secular ruling Tsangpa prince. All
efforts of Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background: transparent;">
</span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;">were
successful because of aid from Güshi Khan, the Oirat leader who
established the Khoshut Khanate. Güshi Khan independently bestowed
supreme authority on Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso the 5th Dalai Lama for
the whole of Tibet at a ceremony at Tashilhunpo Monastery in
Shigatse, such that all power and authority lay in the hands of the
Dalai Lama right up to his death and no other would forcibly
interfere in the administration and its policies. The Tibetan Mongol
alliance was keen such that at the age of 7, Galdan Boshugtu Khan was
sent to Lhasa to be educated as a lama under the 5th Dalai Lama at
Tashilhunpo Monastery. He spent 20 years studying Buddhist canons,
philosophy, astronomy, astrology and basics of medicine and
pharmacology. In this sense, he was one of the best educated kings of
Mongolian history. In 1678, Galdan received from the Dalai Lama the
title of </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><i><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;">Boshogtu
Khan</span></span></i></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;">,
making the Dzungars the leading tribe within the Oirats.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p><p style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm;"><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;"> </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p><span style="color: white; font-size: medium;"><style type="text/css">p { line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0.25cm; background: transparent }</style></span></p><p>
</p><p style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm; margin-top: 0.42cm;">
<span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;">The
Dzungar rulers used the title of Khong Tayiji or Crown Prince, and
between 1680 and 1688, the Dzungars conquered the Tarim Basin, which
is now Southern Xinjiang, and defeated the Eastern Khalkha Mongols.
In 1696, Galdan was defeated by the Qing dynasty and lost Outer
Mongolia. In 1705, the Qing conspired with a Dzungar faction to
kidnap and murder the 6th Dalai Lama, his regent and government
officials. In 1717 Tsewang Rabtan returned to claim Tibet by deposing
the 7th Dalai Lama, and Lha-bzang Khan became the last ruler of the Khoshut
Khanate. Lha-bzang Khan and his entire family were executed prior to
the Battle of the Salween River, though this matter may be</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;"> </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;">considered conjecture or propaganda. In response, an expedition sent by
the Kangxi Emperor, together with Tibetan forces under Polhané Sönam
Topgyé of Tsang and Kangchennas, the governor of Western Tibet,
expelled the Dzungars from Tibet by 1720 which initiated Qing rule of
Tibet. China additionally took advantage of a Dzungar civil war to
conquer Dzungaria with ambitions for total genocide of the Dzungar
people. Estimates are that about 80% of the Dzungar population, or
around 500,000 to 800,000 people, were killed by a combination of
warfare and disease during or after the Qing conquest in 1755–1757.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background: transparent;">
</span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;">After
wiping out the native population of Dzungaria (</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: white;">children, women, and the elderly were reported spared for enslavement as bondservants )<span style="font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;">,</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;"> the Qing government
then resettled Han, Hui, Uyghur, and Sibe people on State farms in
Dzungaria, along with Manchu Bannermen to repopulate the area under
the Xinjiang political administrative unit.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p><p style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm; margin-top: 0.42cm;"><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;"> </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><style type="text/css">p { line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0.25cm; background: transparent }</style></span></p>
<p style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm; margin-top: 0.42cm;">
<span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;">The
</span></span></span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;">Great
Game</span></span></span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;">
</span></span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;">is
a term ascribed to rivalry between the 19th-century British and
Russian Empires over influence in Central Asia, primarily in
Afghanistan, Persia, and Tibet. By the early 20th century, a line of
independent states, tribes, and monarchies from the shore of the
Caspian Sea to the Eastern Himalayas were made into protectorates and
territories of the two empires. The British moved in fear that the
Qing Dynasty had reached a secret understanding with the Russians
over Tibet, and that Russia was providing arms and fighting forces to
Tibet. If it were the case that Russia had a direct route to British
India it would break the chain of quasi-autonomous buffer-states
which separated the British Raj from the Russian Empire. Their fears
were fueled by Russian explorers and the courtier Agvan Dorjiyev who
had met with the Dalai Lama and acted as ambassador for the Tsar. All
the while the Dalai Lama declined British courtiers in full. Even the
possibility of a Tibet authority under Russian protection was a
situation the British would retaliate against most vehemently.</span></span></span></span></span></span></p><p style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm; margin-top: 0.42cm;"><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;"> </span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><style type="text/css"><font style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" size="4"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">p { line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0.25cm; background: transparent }</span></font></style></span><p style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-decoration: none;">
<span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="background: transparent;">Under
the Governor-General Curzon's belief that the Dalai Lama intended to
place Tibet firmly within a sphere of Russian influence and end its
neutrality, he unofficially issued an ultimatum In 1903. This was a
request by the British Raj to the Ganden Phodrang for negotiations to
be held at Khampa Dzong, a tiny Tibetan village north of Sikkim. The
Chinese ambans were willing to accept this meeting with the British,
however, the Dalai Lama refused, and also denied transport for the
Palace’s Chinese official You Tai, to attend. The Tibet Frontier
Commission heading the British expedition to Tibet in 1903–04 thus
trumped up charges for a ground invasion into Tibet across the
occupied territory of Sikkim, the trump rumored to be herdsmans cattle </span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="background: transparent;">rangin</span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="background: transparent;">g over the border.<br /></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="font-variant: normal; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-decoration: none;">
<span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><span><br /></span></span>
</p>
<p style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-decoration: none;">
<span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="background: transparent;">The
Dalai Lama summoned a military contingency in response to the troops
marching on his capital but British military might was far superior.
In 1904 the British soldiers caused the Massacre of Chumik Shenko,
killing 700 Tibetans outright with less than a dozen British
casualties. Another 200 Tibetans were murdered at Red Idol Gorge soon
thereafter. For three months skirmishes continued by British forces
as they marched on Lhasa applying scorched earth policy in decimating
the people, land and infrastructure on the way. At Lhasa on 3 August
1904 the thirteenth Dalai Lama had fled to Urga, the capital of Outer
Mongolia. Chinese officials to the city issued a writ for their
Emperor to depose the Dalai Lama hence, since the Chinese Qing bore
no actual powers of law in Tibet. Whence arriving, the British
expedition forced a brutal treaty with the Regent and Assembly of
Lhasa such that the British had exclusive trading rights in Yatung,
Gyantse, and Gartok, all while Tibet was to pay indemnity of
7,500,000 rupees. This fine was later reduced by two-thirds, with the
Chumbi Valley ceded to Britain.</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="font-variant: normal; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-decoration: none;">
<span style="color: white; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: helvetica;"><br /></span></span>
</p>
<p style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-decoration: none;">
<span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="background: transparent;">George
Curzon the Viceroy of India from 1899 to 1905 had fulfilled his
Geo-political strategic agenda in averting potential Russian threats
in the East and by dealing a crippling blow to Tibet. The full extent
of the British game regarding suzerainty of China and potential for
Russian expansion was such that;</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="font-variant: normal; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-decoration: none;">
<span style="color: white; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: helvetica;"><br /></span></span>
</p>
<p style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.06cm; text-decoration: none;">
<span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="background: transparent;">1.
"No portion of Tibetan territory shall be ceded, sold, leased,
mortgaged or otherwise given for occupation, to any foreign Power;</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.06cm; text-decoration: none;">
<span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="background: transparent;">2.
"No such Power shall be permitted to intervene in Tibetan
affairs;</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.06cm; text-decoration: none;">
<span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="background: transparent;">3.
"No Representatives or Agents of any foreign Power shall be
admitted to Tibet;</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.06cm; text-decoration: none;">
<span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="background: transparent;">4.
"No concessions for railways, roads, telegraphs, mining or other
rights, shall be granted to any foreign Power, or the subject of any
foreign Power. In the event of consent to such concessions being
granted, similar or equivalent concessions shall be granted to the
British Government;</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.06cm; text-decoration: none;">
<span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="background: transparent;">5.
"No Tibetan revenues, whether in kind or in cash, shall be
pledged or assigned to any foreign Power, or to the subject of any
foreign Power."</span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="font-variant: normal; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-decoration: none;">
<span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><span style="background: transparent;"> </span></span></p>
<p style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.42cm; margin-top: 0.42cm;">
<span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;">After
the fall of the Qing empire in 1912, the Ganden Phodrang government
lasted until the 1950s, when Tibet was again occupied by China’s
PRC. During most of the time from the early Qing period until the end
of Ganden Phodrang rule, a governing council known as the Kashag
(established by the Qing in 1721) had operated </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><i><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;">Qhinese</span></span></i></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background: transparent;">
</span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;">authority
within the Ganden Phodrang. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><i><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;">Ganden</span></span></i></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background: transparent;">
</span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;">(</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium;"><span lang="hi-IN"><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background: transparent;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">དགའ་ལྡན</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;">)
is the Tibetan name for the Tushita heaven, which, according to
Buddhist cosmology, is where the future Buddha Maitreya resides.
</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><i><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;">Tuṣita</span></span></i></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background: transparent;">
</span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;">(Sanskrit)
or </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><i><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;">Tusita</span></span></i></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background: transparent;">
</span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;">(Pāli)
is one of the six deva-worlds of the Desire Realm (Kāmadhātu),
located between the </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><i><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;">Yāma</span></span></i></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background: transparent;">
</span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;">heaven
and the </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><i><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;">Nirmāṇarati</span></span></i></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background: transparent;">
</span></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: helvetica; font-size: medium; font-variant: normal;"><span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background: transparent;">heaven.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p dir="ltr" id="docs-internal-guid-bec15909-7fff-06a4-da03-9ed50bc131aa" style="line-height: 1.8; margin-bottom: 12pt; margin-top: 12pt;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><style type="text/css">p { line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0.25cm; background: transparent }</style><span face="Arial,sans-serif" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p style="text-align: left;"></p>Jason Steven Jowetthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06299966996014985455noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5256145196336009922.post-63386753359156070292023-10-20T02:08:00.031-07:002023-10-20T12:21:55.823-07:00Tibet & the Tang<div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: left;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-82d7e399-7fff-59ec-c7c9-d25ace31358f" style="background-color: #990000;"><span style="color: white;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">Tibet is the highest region on Earth, with an average elevation of 4,380 m (14,000 ft). Located in the Himalayas, the highest elevation surrounding the Tibetan plateau is Mount Everest, Earth's highest mountain, rising 8,848.86 m (29,032 ft) above sea level. The Alexandrian known as Claudius Ptolemy, 100 – c. 170 AD identified the country Batai at an Eastern perimeter in his seminal work Geographia. Proceeding Ptolemy the Egyptian-Greek work </span><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-style: italic; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</span><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;"> (1st century CE) identifies Batai as a prospective trading partner. The regional "Bhutan" is derived from the Sanskrit term "Bhotanta," which means "the end of Tibet" or "the land of the Tibetans", however the country is identified in Dzongkha language as "Brug-yul" which translates as </span><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-style: italic; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">The Land of the Thunder Dragon</span><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">. </span><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-style: italic; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">Bhauṭṭa </span><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">is the Sanskrit geopolitical equivalent for the modern </span><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-style: italic; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">Bod</span><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;"> (བོད་) or ‘Tibet’ in English. The earliest Chinese record pertains to the 7th C. onward and under the name "Tǔfān" (吐蕃) meaning Western Barbarians, or seminally Xīfān (西番) pertaining to the expansion period. Thus the etymology is formally a Tibeto-Burman language of the Sino-Tibetan language family, of which Sino-Tibetan, and that through it Tibetan and Burmese are mere distant cousins of Chinese.</span></span></span></div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: left;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="background-color: #990000;"><span><span><span style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span style="white-space-collapse: preserve;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span><span id="docs-internal-guid-c3d0dade-7fff-97d1-5d49-ab671ecc58a4"><p dir="ltr" style="background-color: #990000; line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">The earliest Tibetan historical texts identify the Zhang Zhung culture as a people who migrated from the Amdo region into what is now the region of Guge in western Tibet. Zhang Zhung is considered to be the original home of the Bön religion, and a</span><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">ccording to Rolf Alfred Stein</span><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-style: italic; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">’s Tibetan Civilization</span><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">, the area of Shang Shung was not historically a part of Tibet and was a distinctly foreign territory to the Tibetans</span><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">: </span></p><br /><span style="background-color: #cc0000;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">"... then further west, the Tibetans encountered a distinctly foreign nation. – Shangshung, with its capital at Khyunglung. Mt. Kailāśa (Tise) and Lake Manasarovar formed part of this country., whose language has come down to us through early documents. Though still unidentified, it seems to be Indo European .... Geographically the country was certainly open to India, both through Nepal and by way of Kashmir and Ladakh. Kailāśa is a holy place for the Indians, who make pilgrimages to it. No one knows how long they have done so, but the cult may well go back to the times when Shangshung was still independent of Tibet. How far Shangshung stretched to the north, east and west is a mystery .... We have already had an occasion to remark that Shangshung, embracing Kailāśa sacred Mount of the Hindus, may once have had a religion largely borrowed from Hinduism. The situation may even have lasted for quite a long time. In fact, about 950, the Hindu King of Kabul had a statue of Vişņu, of the Kashmiri type (with three heads), which he claimed had been given him by the king of the Bhota (Tibetans) who, in turn had obtained it from Kailāśa."</span><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;"> </span></span></span></span></div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: left;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-372ce180-7fff-ed5b-6dc5-3f528992d370" style="background-color: #990000;"><span style="color: white;"><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">By the 1st Century BCE a neighbouring Kingdom arose in the Yarlung valley. The Yarlung King Drigum Tsenpo attempted to remove the influence of the Zhang Zhung by expelling the Zhang's Bön priests from Yarlung. He was assassinated and Zhang Zhung continued its dominance of the region. Great Tibet then became centred on the Tibetan Plateau, formed as a result of imperial expansion under the mythological Yarlung dynastic rulers heralded by its 33rd king, Songtsen Gampo, in the 7th century. Songtsen Gampo 569–649 [sroŋpʦan zɡampo], The 33rd King and founder of the Tibetan Empire is accredited with the introduction of Buddhism to Tibet after ascending at age 13 according to the </span><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-style: italic; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">Old Book of Tang</span><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">. Later influenced by his Nepali consort Bhrikuti, of Nepal's Licchavi dynasty, as well as with the unification of what had previously been several Tibetan kingdoms, he is regarded as responsible for the creation of the Tibetan script and therefore the establishment of Classical Tibetan, although this must remain a contested matter and it’s mostly likely he only adopted </span><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">Mādhyamaka philosophy not the Buddhist religion</span><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">. Perhaps mythically thus he is said to have issued the order for minister Thonmi Sambhota to travel to India to devise a script for Classical Tibetan, this led to the creation of the first Tibetan literary works and translations, court records and constitution, and so relocated his Capital from the Yarlung Valley to the Kyichu Valley, the site of the future city of Lhasa. According to sources, during the reign of Songtsen Gampo, examples of Handicrafts and Astrological systems were imported from China and the Western Xia; the Dharma and the Art of Writing came from India; material wealth and treasures from the Nepalis and the lands of the Mongols, while Model laws and Administration were imported from the Uyghurs of the Second Turkic Khaganate. </span></p><div><br /></div><div><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-9e64dd58-7fff-3db0-56df-5e4e83297cfe"><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">The Old Tibetan Annals, are composed of two wholly secular manuscripts written in Old Tibetan language found in the early 20th century in a </span><span style="font-style: italic; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">hidden library</span><span style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline;"> within the Mogao Grottoes near Dunhuang in northwestern Gansu province, believed to have been sealed in the 11th century CE, they form Tibet's earliest extant history. The libraries Old Tibetan Chronicle alternatively was probably compiled between 800-840 CE, whilst the Annals begin with a very brief account of the early events of the reign of Songtsen Gampo and from a time the Chinese Princess Wencheng arrived in 643 CE until Songtsen Gampo's death in 650, following with year-by-year précis of important events from 650 to 764 CE. The </span><span style="font-style: italic; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">Old Tibetan Chronicle </span><span style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">maintains that during the reign of King Trisong Detsen (755 to 797 or 804 CE), "The incomparable religion of the Buddha had been received and there were viharas (monasteries) in the centre as well as the borderlands of the country", an advent much later than the military conquests of Songtsen Gampo between Indian and Chinese borders 200 years prior.</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">Since the Kings Tagri Nyensig and Namri Songtsen (570-620) the struggle to unify ‘’Tibet’’ was thwarted with difficulties. The empire further expanded under its 38th king, Trisong Detsen, and expanded to its greatest extent under the 41st King Rapalchen in the </span><span style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">780s to 790s spanning territory across modern-day Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma, China, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan</span><span style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">. </span><span style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">The Kingdom of Nanzhao (in Yunnan and neighbouring regions) remained under Tibetan control from 750 to 794, when they turned on their Tibetan overlords and helped the Chinese inflict a serious defeat on the Tibetans.</span></p><div><span style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-c55fd8d4-7fff-83b4-0534-87f9bf4c7be4"><span style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">In 747, the hold of Tibet was first loosened by the campaign of the Tang general Gao Xianzhi, who tried to re-open the direct communications between Central Asia and Kashmir. By 750, the Tibetans had lost almost all of their central Asian possessions to the Chinese. However, after Gao Xianzhi's defeat by the Arabs and Qarluqs at the Battle of Talas (751) and the subsequent civil war known as the An Lushan Rebellion (755), Chinese influence decreased rapidly and the Tibetans resumed regional superiority. As a part of the Muslim Conquest the Abbasid Caliphate who were allied with the Tibetans, co-opted the Karluk Turks 20,000 strong force who defected, betraying the Tang forces (only 10,000 soldiers) and in joining the Caliphate, the battle within the valley of the Talas River which vied for control over the Syr Darya had assured the Caliphate’s control over Transoxiana for the next 400 years ending the Chinese expansion West by the Imperial Tang Dynasty (618 to 907). </span><span style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">Emperor Rapalchen’s 821–823 treaty concluded conflicts between the Tibetan Empire and the Tang dynasty. </span><span style="font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-position: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">The terms of this treaty, including the fixed borders between the two countries, are recorded in a bilingual inscription on a stone pillar outside the Jokhang temple in Lhasa.</span></span></span></div></span></span></div></span></span></div>Jason Steven Jowetthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06299966996014985455noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5256145196336009922.post-80730540081263782192022-12-22T09:18:00.014-08:002023-10-20T02:13:20.644-07:00Greece; Laconophilia & the Thirty TyrantsSeveral dynasties claimed descent from Heracles, such as the Agiads and Eurypontids of Sparta, or the Temenids of Macedonia. Of pre-classical dialects and traditions in southern Greece, the ones that prevailed in Classical Greece followed. According to Herodotus, Macedonian tribes called Dorians charged South [from the mountains of Epirus] to reclaim their ancestral territories en mass within the Peloponnese, where they subjugated the local tribes before commencing territorial expansions. The Return of the Heracleidae was orchestrated by the brothers Kresphontes and Temenos, as well as the twins Eurysthenes and Prokles who accordingly divided the Peloponnese into three parts: Kresphontes took Messenia, Temenos the north-east, and the twins Laconia, thus becoming the first dual kings of Sparta.</span></div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYjA-kO-fJoXrC1ipBUTcU-SIUsEnWwFo-t54812-4J1sEJMUWW4yahjEv-M2nO27X81NPvIEH4F_dnpIGYFZtbDG4qUsT0T2S2wAVQGFz6mQvERdKfGF7csjCEkxvmPtq5UMwbAuRIkU0bJBLdtvyqyw005lZUE3qWJIfXxahlRDA04ap90QG3KtRzA/s1456/Spartans.png" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="816" data-original-width="1456" height="214" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYjA-kO-fJoXrC1ipBUTcU-SIUsEnWwFo-t54812-4J1sEJMUWW4yahjEv-M2nO27X81NPvIEH4F_dnpIGYFZtbDG4qUsT0T2S2wAVQGFz6mQvERdKfGF7csjCEkxvmPtq5UMwbAuRIkU0bJBLdtvyqyw005lZUE3qWJIfXxahlRDA04ap90QG3KtRzA/w382-h214/Spartans.png" width="382" /></a></div>By expanding their frontiers major battles were fought against Argos and the Arcadians. Heraclids in mythology were numerous, all descendants of Heracles (Hercules) and were the Dorian kings who conquered Mycenae, and Sparta also. Known as Heracleidae they include Macaria, Lamos, Manto, Bianor, Tlepolemus, and Telephus. Within Doric proper and Northwest Doric subgrouped dialects Tsakonian is </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14.6667px; white-space: pre-wrap;">included</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; white-space: pre-wrap;">, under which ancient leaders are identified as Laconophiles. Tsakonian, likewise a descendant of Laconian Doric (Spartan), is also still spoken in modern Greece. Original sources from Sparta include the 7th century poet Alcman, and Philoxenus of Alexandria’s treatise <i>On the Laconian dialect</i>. Attic and Ionic dialects would respectively centralize, before Attic dominated becoming Hellenization.<br /></span><span><span id="docs-internal-guid-70ce6be5-7fff-d9c4-9c07-39b43630b60e"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Greco-Persian Wars and the Peloponnesian War were largely played out between Athens and Sparta, but the division on ethical standards must be considerably the cause of Athenian-Spartan rivalry, which ultimately </span><span style="font-size: 14.6667px; white-space: pre-wrap;">destabilized</span><span style="font-size: 11pt; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Greece </span><span style="font-size: 14.6667px; white-space: pre-wrap;">sufficiently enough</span><span style="font-size: 11pt; white-space: pre-wrap;"> that the Roman invasion succeeded. Cimon, an Athenian general of the </span></span></span></span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14.6667px; white-space: pre-wrap;">Greco-Persian War</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; white-space: pre-wrap;"> explained that while laconians actively subjugated citizens and held various </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14.6667px; white-space: pre-wrap;">suzerains,</span><span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; white-space: pre-wrap;"> they in fact, though bearing a fully dedicated military creed, actually needed Athens. Cimon had Athens send 4000 </span><span style="font-size: 14.6667px; white-space: pre-wrap;">hoplites under his command</span><span style="font-size: 11pt; white-space: pre-wrap;"> to assist Sparta during a helots revolt, whence the renegades fortified Mount Ithome, but the Spartans repudiated military aid from Athens lest their democratic ideals influence their helots or the Perioeci. Laconophilia hence presents an awkward </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14.6667px; white-space: pre-wrap;">synthetization</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; white-space: pre-wrap;"> of codes of military law with affirmative general knowledge, and as the predecessor of </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14.6667px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://greatbrittania.blogspot.com/2015/01/india-persia-greek-hellenisation.html" target="_blank">Hellenization</a></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; white-space: pre-wrap;">, is oriented by the opinions of tyrannical governments or democracies of the people, and in asserting rights of mankind on general populations. Haphazardly Laconophilia is considered a philosophy thus particular to the love of Sparta, and some of Socrates' followers so identified, whilst Socrates is said to have just praised the laws of Sparta. Indeed since Spartans didn't account for Laconophilia, rather as an Athenian creation, and induced under the </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14.6667px; white-space: pre-wrap;">rivalry</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; white-space: pre-wrap;"> of inter-state association, it's bound to be prejudiced by a </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14.6667px; white-space: pre-wrap;">democratic</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; white-space: pre-wrap;"> tradition espousing philosophy.</span></div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span><span><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span><span><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; white-space: pre-wrap;">Critias, first cousin of Plato's mother, subsequently enforced oligarchic rule as one of the Thirty Tyrants in the substitute interim government. Xenophon, another disciple of Socrates, fought for the Spartans against Athens. Plato, it's argued, preferred a Spartan-type regime over a democratic one, and Aristotle regarded the kind of laws adopted by Sparta as especially apt to produce virtuous and law-abiding citizens. Aristotle also however criticized the Spartans as incompetent and corrupt, and built on a culture of war. Here in diverging in a simple culture of an elite warrior society, scholars have proposed that Greek Mycenaeans also originally reflected exogenous impositions of archaic Indo-Europeans from the Eurasian steppe. A tenuous relationship between Aegean and northern steppe populations during the Bronze Age led to another theory that Mycenaean culture in Greece dates back to circa 3000 BC with Indo-European migrants entering a mainly-depopulated area, while others argue for earlier dating conferred by the spread of agriculture and chariot technology. </span></span></span></span></span></div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span><span><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span><span><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh8_wt7wIYHW-7-KYXd6--ezT7GeIYMqnRNnWX7FaZ5QPJMY7xnkgKIaGV2wGx9ZefHRvHFIYdRcy_G297JBn1CwJStxKgwx50QWNvwW-A4xGBlFjzSc-zUfisd93idWC2uC8N6XwiFHKoi2t_PcdqYR8C0SdjZUfsMvBlkg0XV73XQtipbMiUOPGh55w/s1456/Invasion.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="816" data-original-width="1456" height="342" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh8_wt7wIYHW-7-KYXd6--ezT7GeIYMqnRNnWX7FaZ5QPJMY7xnkgKIaGV2wGx9ZefHRvHFIYdRcy_G297JBn1CwJStxKgwx50QWNvwW-A4xGBlFjzSc-zUfisd93idWC2uC8N6XwiFHKoi2t_PcdqYR8C0SdjZUfsMvBlkg0XV73XQtipbMiUOPGh55w/w667-h342/Invasion.png" width="667" /></a></div></span></span></span></span></div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Thirty Tyrants were a Spartan supported oligarchy installed in Athens after the defeat in the Peloponnesian War in 404 BC. The Thirty appointed a large council to serve the judicial functions formerly belonging to all the citizens. Choosing 3,000 hand-selected individual Athenian men to act as officials with increased rights to carry weapons, have a jury trial, and to reside within city limits; their participation lent privilege under scrutiny for devotion to the regime. Led by Critias, the Thirty Tyrants executed a reign of terror over Athens, seizing detractors' property and possessions in a State-wide apartheid. Both Isocrates and Aristotle (the latter in the Athenian Constitution) have reported that the Thirty executed 1,500 people without trial during the reign which was regularly enforced with lash-bearers or whip-bearing men. Shortly however an uprising overthrew the Thirty, orchestrated by a group of Athenian exiles led by Thrasybulus. Critias was killed in the battle near Piraeus, the port of Athens amid members and supporters of the Thirty, and aided by the Spartan garrison.</span></div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEmS6M6Ji9AVQfpFnT7pMMVmxkPffAfMKkaIELQ4vxh9FEDxPTpqG-pBOLpWeTEuLmSN2ujm2eMdNnBz8vP6ysGgOEWkNhyTy-9wrvAKnbS3NTGwG8uakjgtgWF8cq24NfsY-UAgGhfoHxUZzupKL-GsXoLiEKP7UABt4Jm0r6dtSvI1hH28uIL8xX5g/s1024/Rebellion.png" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1024" data-original-width="1024" height="267" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEmS6M6Ji9AVQfpFnT7pMMVmxkPffAfMKkaIELQ4vxh9FEDxPTpqG-pBOLpWeTEuLmSN2ujm2eMdNnBz8vP6ysGgOEWkNhyTy-9wrvAKnbS3NTGwG8uakjgtgWF8cq24NfsY-UAgGhfoHxUZzupKL-GsXoLiEKP7UABt4Jm0r6dtSvI1hH28uIL8xX5g/w267-h267/Rebellion.png" width="267" /></a></div></div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; white-space: pre-wrap;">Socrates was accounted for refusing to present one respected democratic citizen to the Thirty for execution, as written by Plato in the Apology. Plato, only a child during the events, recounted his teacher’s rejection of the iniquitous deeds by which the Thirty applied guilt-by-association. Critias is reputed to have directly exercised leniency on his former teacher for still maintaining the </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14.6667px; white-space: pre-wrap;">integrity of </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14.6667px; white-space: pre-wrap;">democracy</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; white-space: pre-wrap;"> subsequent to the humiliating defeat at the Battle of Aegospotami </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; white-space: pre-wrap;">by a Spartan-Persian-Corinthian coalition.</span></div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> </div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></div></span><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 14.6667px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><i>Artwork by Midjourney.</i></span></span></div>Jason Steven Jowetthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06299966996014985455noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5256145196336009922.post-86514540589720954722022-11-10T14:56:00.048-08:002022-11-12T16:20:00.161-08:00Siam; the Haw & the Indochinese Federation<p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"> The widespread colonization in the Orient by the Dutch, French, Portuguese, British and Spanish Europeans, wasn't universal in practice as the different political maneuvers enacted in Thailand ensured sovereignty was maintained irrespective of the technological superiority Europeans exercised. The French were the primary antagonists for King Chulalongkornin through which his prince Maha Vajirunhis, Crown Prince of Siam would die of Typhoid fever. The Indochinese Union and after 1947 as the Indochinese Federation, was a grouping of French colonial territories in Southeast Asia until its demise in 1954. It comprised Cambodia, Laos (from 1899), the Chinese territory of Guangzhouwan (from 1898 until 1945), and the Vietnamese regions of Tonkin in the north, Annam in the centre, and Cochinchina in the south. The capital for most of its history (1902–45) was Hanoi; Saigon was the capital from 1887 to 1902 and again from 1945 to 1954.
</span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"> King Chulalongkorn's coronation was in 1868 at age 16, as the 5th monarch of the House of Chakri. The King mitigated the Eastern threat by building
three new forts on the Chao Phraya and bolstering the garrison at the gulf
port of Chantaburi (Chantaboon). Also by forming a professional standing army and dismantling the feudal territories in favor of a constituted national government with strict borders. Additionally abolishing slavery (33% of Thai people), liberating free speech, religious practice, </span></span><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;">enshrining tax collection</span></span><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"> and generally aligning the nations administration with Europe and America. The young Chulalongkorn visited Singapore and Java
in 1870 and British India during 1870–1872 to study the administration
of British colonies. He toured the administrative centers of Calcutta,
Delhi, Bombay, and back to Calcutta in early-1872. Chulalongkorn would provide aid to the British in their occupation of Burma. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;">In the northern Laotian lands bordering China, insurgents of the <a href="https://greatbrittania.blogspot.com/2017/11/anglo-chinese-divisions-opium-wars-and.html">Taiping Rebellion</a> had taken refuge since the reign of King Mongkut. The <i>Haw</i> were generally bandits and pillagers, but had consolidated banners and drew a serious response from Chao Oun Kham, the ruling prince of Luang Prabang in </span></span><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;">1874</span></span><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;">. The Prince appealed to Siam for aid when in 1875 Chulalongkorn sent troops from Bangkok to crush the rebellious Haw who had ravaged as far as Vientiane by the time. In 1868 Liu Yongfu abandoned Wu Yuanqing's rebels as new Chinese national forces were routing the nations rebels, and crossed into Vietnam with
a force of 200 loyal soldiers. He feigned to be the famous 'General of the Black
Tiger', and branded his Black Flag Army, <i>heiqi jun</i> (<i>hei-ch'i chun</i>,
黑旗軍). The Black Flags marched slowly through northern Tonkin, engaging the local montagnards after which attaining recognition and rank as a Vietnamese military governor. Recruiting men to their standard as they went, the Haw set up
camp just outside Son Tay, on the northern bank of the Red River, before taking over Lao Cai and centralizing there as now forming the modern border of Vietnam and China.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;">In 1869, having conciliated the Vietnamese, Liu also won favor with
the Chinese authorities by committing the Black Flag Army to a Chinese
punitive campaign against the Yellow Flags, the other insurgent offshoot of the Yunan province. A Chinese expedition
into the region was commanded by the veteran general Feng Zicai, who would later win fame during the Sino-French War (August 1884–April 1885) by defeating a French column at the Battle of Zhennan Pass
(24 March 1885). 'The
storming of the thirteen passes' ensued when Liu's Black Flags fought their way
through the mountains and attacked Huang Chongying's headquarters at
Hayang, a town on the Clear River near the border with Yunnan, forcing
the Yellow Flag leader to take refuge with his montagnard allies.
Although the Chinese and Black Flags failed to annihilate the Yellow
Flags, they taught them a severe lesson, and Feng rewarded Liu for his
help by offering him an honorary commission in the Chinese army.
</span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;">In the next few years Liu Yongfu established a profitable
protection racket on commerce on the Red River between Son Tay and Lao
Cai. Traders were taxed at the rate of 10% of the value of their goods.
The profits that accrued from this extortion were so great that Liu's
army swelled in numbers during the 1870s, attracting to its ranks
adventurers from all over the world. Although most of the soldiers were
Chinese, many mercenaries were American or European expats, some of whom had fought in the Taiping
Rebellion. Liu used their western expertise to transform the Black Flag Army
into a formidable fighting force. Liu now commanded 7,000 Black Flag soldiers from Guangdong and Guangxi around Tonkin. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;">What would be Thailand's last military expeditions into the region, Chulalongkorn's forces marched to capture a supposed Haw stronghold at Chiangkham in spring of 1875. Siamese forces crossed the River Mekong at Nong Khai, and after suffering losses against the proxy militia retreated all the way to Isan
in 1885. New, modernized forces were next sent along with the British James McCarthy who accounted for the Haw's demoralizing tactics, trapping territories and guerilla warfare. This force was divided into
two groups attacking the Haw from both Chiang Kam and Pichai. The Haw
were defeated only as much as scattering into the hills and mountains, many taking to Vietnam. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;">In 1893 Auguste Pavie, the French vice-consul of Luang Prabang, requested the cession of all Laotian lands east of the Mekong River which was Siam's suzerain. Siam resented the demand, embarking on the Franco–Siamese War of 1893.
Governor-General Jean de Lanessan sent three military
columns into the disputed region to assert French control in April.
Eight small Siamese garrisons west of the Mekong withdrew upon the
arrival of the central column, but the advance of the other columns met
with resistance. The French came under siege on the island of Khoung,
with the capture of an officer, Thoreaux. The occupation
proceeded smoothly until an ambush by the Siamese on the village of Keng Ker. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The column was at first successful in evicting the Siamese commissioner at Khammuan by 25 May.<sup> </sup>Shortly afterward on 5 June, the Siamese commissioner organized a surprise ambush on the village of Kien Ket, where Grosgurin, confined to his sickbed, had encamped with his militia. The commissioner had apparently been instructed by Siamese government
representatives to "compel their [French troops] retirement, by
fighting, if necessary, to the utmost of their strength". The ambush resulted in the razing of the village and the killing of Grosgurin and 17 Vietnamese. <br /></span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Conflict climaxed when the French Navy aviso <i>Inconstant</i> and the gunboat <i>Comete</i> arrived on July 13 at Paknam with the intention of crossing the bar into the Chao Phraya River and join the French gunboat <i>Lutin</i> already anchored off the French embassy in Bangkok. <i>Makut Ratchakuman</i> and <i>Coronation</i> led the Siamese fleet but were ill-equipped with weaponry compared to the more modern French flotilla. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The French gunboat <i>Le Lutin</i> entered the Chao Phraya en route for the French consulate to ready a full assault. Fighting between French and Siamese forces were underway on the Eastern frontier. The French Foreign Minister, Jules Develle, ordered Admiral Edgar
Humann, the commander of the French Far Eastern Naval Division, to
concentrate his nine warships off Saigon on Siam maintaining the need to
"round off our Indochinese empire", with the most optimal means of
technological superiority. The French in Bangkok believed that the Siamese were well-prepared for battle however in tutelage of the Dutch. Chulachomklao Fort had just been modernized with seven 6-inch Armstrong Whitworth disappearing guns and was under the command of Andreas du Plessis de Richelieu, a Danish naval officer granted the noble title
of Phraya Chonlayutyothin. Further upriver at Paknam Island, the
smaller Phi Seua Samut fortress had also been fitted with three of the
same guns. The Siamese had placed a sorte of water traps from below the Fort to the center of the
river. Above this, two chain and stake barrages plus several sunken
vessels off both banks caused a bottle neck.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Phra Chulachomklao Fort opened fire with two blank rounds but the
French continued on, so a third, live, warning shot was fired and hit
the water in front of the <i>Jean Baptiste Say</i>. When this warning was ignored, a fourth shot was fired so the gunboats <i>Makhut Ratchakuman</i> and <i>Coronation</i> opened up at 18:50. <i>Inconstant</i> returned fire on the fort while the <i>Comete</i> engaged the gunboats. At least two shots from the fortress hit the <i>Inconstant</i> but coordinated strikes lacked on both side. After firing two shots the carriage of the 70-pound gun aboard the <i>Coronation</i> broke through the deck and could no longer be fired. In the ensuing confusion the <i>Coronation</i> was nearly rammed by the <i>Inconstant</i> which fired two shells into the <i>Coronation</i>. The <i>Jean Baptiste Say</i>
was hit several times by cannon fire and the Captain was forced to
ground her on Laem Lamphu Rai. No shells hit the Phra Chulachomklao
Fort. Within 25 minutes the <i>Inconstant</i> and the <i>Comete</i> had
broken through the line of Siamese defenses at a cost of fifteen Siamese
and two French lives. A short time later the ships passed the Phi Seua
fortress at Paknam with ineffective retaliation, and one report of civilian casualties by the Port.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;">By the break of day the Siamese captured the steamer <i>Jean Baptiste Say</i> taking hostages, and were unable to sink the vessel.<i> </i>The French gunboat <i>Forfait</i> shortly arrived at Paknam but was repelled attempting to board </span></span><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><i>Jean Baptiste Say</i></span></span><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;">. This was a minor victory for the Siamese since Captain Borey had anchored off the French Embassy in Bangkok at around
22:00 on July 13 his ships' guns were targeted on the Royal palace. Forced negotiations ensued when the French sent an ultimatum: an
indemnity of three million francs, as well as the cession of and
withdrawal from Laos, lest a full attack ensue on the capital Bangkok. Siam did not accept the ultimatum evacuating where required and setting course for prolonged war. French troops
then blockaded the Gulf of Siam and occupied Chantaburi and Trat. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;">King Chulalongkorn sent Rolin-Jacquemyns to negotiate and appealed to Britain for assistance likewise. Britain proposed an agreement with France in arbitration guaranteeing the
integrity of the rest of Siam. In exchange, Siam needed to surrender any territorial
claim on the Thai-speaking Shan region as north-eastern Burma to the British, and cede Laos to France. <br /></span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Siamese agreed to cede Laos to France, significantly expanding French Indochina.
In 1896, France signed a treaty with Britain defining the border
between Laos and British territory in Upper Burma. The Kingdom of Laos
became a protectorate, initially placed under the Governor General of
Indochina in Hanoi. </span></span><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;">French vice-consul </span></span><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Pavie, who almost single-handedly brought Laos under
French administration, saw to the officialization in Hanoi.
</span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The French and British both had strong interests in controlling
parts of Indochina and Thailand as a middle-ground bode well for the region. Twice in the 1890s, the two superpowers were on the verge of war
over two different routes leading to Yunnan.
But several difficulties discouraged them from war. The geography of
the land made troop movements difficult, and any warfare far more costly and
less effective. Both countries were fighting a difficult conflict within
their respective colonies likewise and troop consignment was impossibly forthcoming. Malaria
was common and deadly too. Ultimately, the imagined trade routes never
really came into use and the economic results of the colonization in entirety remains dubious. In 1904, the French and the British put aside
their many differences with the Entente Cordiale, ending their own disputes waged in southeastern Asia.
</span></span></p>Jason Steven Jowetthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06299966996014985455noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5256145196336009922.post-48693729288345230622021-04-16T00:47:00.027-07:002022-11-17T23:50:50.371-08:00Zoroaster & the Throne of Solomon<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; white-space: pre-wrap;">The three monotheistic religions of Christianity/Catholicism, Islam and Judaism, referred to as Abrahamic, are claimed under the Takht-e-Sulaiman which is both atop a mountain in Pakistan (Takht-e-Sulaiman) and by a thermal pool at Iran’s Takht-e Soleyman (also known as the Azar Goshnasp Fire Temple). The literal meaning of Takht-e-Sulaiman, the Throne of Solomon is discerned against it’s metonymy alluding to such an idea of a supernatural holding as well as where Zoroastrians originated and may claim a birthplace of Zoroaster in West Azerbaijan Provinces Nosratabad circa seventeen century BCE. The Zoroastrians continue to practice the maintenance of the eternal flame in the fire temple to this day, such as at Yazd Atash Behram. The myth of this particular fire temple at Takht-e-Sulaiman as the origin of world religions is based on the story of the three wise men (Magi), which includes the practice of astrology, magic, and idol worship particularly of course also </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 16px; white-space: pre-wrap;">practically </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; white-space: pre-wrap;">instills the three things fire truly serves in good living; warmth, light and cooking.</span></div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://jsjowett.wordpress.com/" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;" target="_blank"><img alt="" data-original-height="807" data-original-width="807" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjaPAC9eGHvrdOgLBOkH7xVpNU26_QKxin0bZlBd3-u1yEnbywgt7Uu-Un7cG81WTFxpDNLJabFZBqhLtblq82d9BZFqoF8wutKm_ZdmXUBD7UFIZBJb1fKSaAB_gKPzFACCPAUQh0Zy2EK/w640-h640/SolomonsBowl_Signed_Snip_RR.png" width="640" /></a></div></div><br /> </span></div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">If conducting transnational trade in the ancient world the obstacles to financial success were complicated, it was identifiably less so for Zoroastrians. From the mountain in Pakistan surrounded by olive groves and pine nut forests, which at its peak of 3,487 meters (11,440 ft) the general zenith for living; the prophet Solomon didn’t transgress this distance east, rather overlooked India to see it’s cover of darkness, before returning west. Choreography of a journey across such regions, often covered in snow, is of course the trepidation surrounding such allegory, when merchants seek both to secure the route in good living standards, and avoid the impasse of many kinds including banditry. The basis of the Silk road for instance; it’s trail from east to west and vice-a-versa hence is between stationed securities which requires some obligatory measure of standards, easily enforced under the certainty of Zoroaster when potentially the traders on the lucrative trade routes from East and Southern Asia to the West weren’t privy to accept intoxications of a classical Indo-Iranian religious belief system (such as soma and haoma</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; white-space: pre-wrap;">). </span></div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Zoroastrianism or Mazdayasna the State religion of Iran from 600 BCE to 650 CE, has a dualistic cosmology of good and evil and an eschatology, predicting the ultimate conquest of evil by good. Zoroastrianism exalts the uncreated and benevolent deity of wisdom, Ahura Mazda. Featuring monotheism, messianism, judgment after death, heaven and hell, and free will all which was adopted by other religious and philosophical systems, including Second Temple Judaism, Gnosticism, Greek philosophy, Christianity, Islam, the Baháʼí Faith, and Buddhism. The Avesta is it’s central writing (of Zoroaster) composing Gathas, with 17 Hymns, in Gathic or Old Avestan, of the old Iranian language group that is a sub-group of Eastern families of the Indo-European languages. Also the Yasna, the constituent chapters of which define the ceremony and function to strengthen the orderly spiritual and material creations of Ahura Mazda against the assault of the destructive forces of Angra Mainyu, and via a lengthy eulogy which culminates in an offering and or strengthening of the waters. </span><span id="docs-internal-guid-4dcddf04-7fff-5c20-29f2-dc4c197e6a53"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The historical identity of Zoroaster isn’t well discerned and potentially for good reason. For example while the birthplace of Buddha, or Jesus acts to centralize these faiths, the Gathas means both the teaching of Zoroaster and the community that accepts that teaching. As origins go, magic itself is such an illusion more often than not, of multiple meanings, which either so entertained, seeks to embellish or deceive, and so acquire uncertainty for recompense. As such the Avestan maga- and the Sanskrit magha-, should confer while there is no reason to suppose something, that thing rather as belief acts in force, on what may be, and however is, which is what is known as faith. The Magi, the priests of Zoroaster first appear in the trilingual inscription written by Darius the Great, known as the Behistun Inscription. Old Persian texts, predating the Hellenistic period, refer to a magus as a Zurvanic, and presumably Zoroastrian, priest. Such accounts of course defy the nature of the Magus, which necessarily imparts undefined methodology, superstitions perhaps, and so often regarded, but the mystical life, which is often embellished with the motivation to aspire to greatness. </span></div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href=" " style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;" target="_blank"><img alt="" data-original-height="723" data-original-width="1500" height="309" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSoQaxDHmuk-E-SgdHYc75EsICHmLCoaIy-iwf_HSvCkhJ9gwdRntnZQerNrWpWKV0_D0hhNxeLB1UB-mdSGyzIH0OTIP68isjXskPaE4rAkOdK1EJ0cKKkcQnLmrkV6c3R-DffOiBGbnL/w640-h309/main-silk-road-full.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The creation of fable as designed to expel indignity, generate positivity and endure generations is the essential contribution we should expect from those in deep discussions cloistered around an eternal flame. The so called source of Zoroaster, for instance, his said birthplace by the Azar Goshnasp Fire Temple, imbues the sanctity of the best potential where the harshest climate can still be reveled in. So riding the trade route along the Silk road one caravan traveling day in and day out, holds that in the whitest winter when reaching the thermal lake at Nosratabad, those may bathe, and dry at it’s temple fire. Indulgence hence in remoteness is so sought, but not only to just receive sustenance in good company, but availing profit in security whilst too securing the opportunity to wed.</span></div><span id="docs-internal-guid-4dcddf04-7fff-5c20-29f2-dc4c197e6a53"><div><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></div></span>Jason Steven Jowetthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06299966996014985455noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5256145196336009922.post-21521715995946081522021-01-10T20:12:00.023-08:002022-06-16T01:26:35.712-07:00Byzantium & Khazaria; the Quinisext Council<div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><h2 id="docs-internal-guid-e4f4044c-7fff-ccda-6fbe-243628af222e" style="line-height: 1.656; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: Arial; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Gog and Magog were apocryphal terms for the Khazar, descendants from the east-Asian steppe in following the Sabir war-machine, and departure of the far eastern Hun. Bearing ethnocentric composition of both Asian and Caucasians, the empire was preempted with the first collapse of Tong Yabghu Qaghan’s Western Turkic Khaganate from 618 to 628 AD. Described in the Old Book of Tang as having ‘occupied the land of Wusun and moved... to Qianquan north of Tashkent’ while Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang whence visiting the western Göktürk capital Suyab in modern Kyrgyzstan described Tong Yabghu as wearing “a green satin robe; his hair, which was ten feet long, was free. A band of white silk wound round his forehead and hung down behind”. Attributed to be the leader mentioned in Byzantine sources as having (as khagan of the Khazars) campaigned with the Emperor Heraclius in the Caucasus against the Sassanid Persian Empire in 627–628. Scholars disagree though as to whether Sipi Khagan was the ruler, who was Tong Yabghu's uncle; maintaining authority in the West. The generations following Tong Yabghu Qaghan’s assasination were composed by a mixture of regimes imposed under military Generals of which scholars cannot definitively attribute any sovereign authority to a Khagar again until 740 - 786 with Bulan Khazar who famously converted to Judaism. The Khazar capital was originally Balanjar but following sustained conflict with the Arabs (see </span></span></span><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: Arial; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Al-Tabari) after the seventh century it was moved to Atil.</span></span></span></h2><h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: white;"></span></span></h2><h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: white;"></span></span></h2><h2 style="line-height: 1.656; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: Arial; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Ibn Fadlan accounted for the Khāqān, or Khan’s as “Emperors” and “Kings” in modern English; having invaded territories of the Black Sea where the Khazar would consolidate it’s multi-ethnic State. The Khan, so typical of the Orient, can only appear in public once every four months. The ruling deputy in command of the armies would actually manage the affairs of the kingdom, predominately in collecting homage and in daily council, considered as ritual. The armies were deemed to never lay eyes on their Emperor as for example when out riding, the entire army accompanies him at a distance of one mile and on return all subjects prostrate themselves. Such armies will forfeit their lives on retreat from battle or otherwise abandonment while it’s General's possessions were publicly distributed prior to his execution, or if favored nonetheless, kept in service of the State as a stable boy. The Great Khāqān bore innumerable wives and concubines sourced from neighboring kingdoms who had sworn fealty to the ruler. A Great Khāqān’s rule is said to expire precisely after forty years, where if just one day late his subjects should execute him while maintaining his mind to be defective, and his judgement impaired. On death, his subjects are required to build a large dwelling over a river, in which twenty tents are erected and twenty graves are dug. Those who bury the Khāqān are beheaded upon completion of their task so that no one knows the final location of the corpses interment in its “Garden”.</span></span></span></h2><h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: white;"></span></span></h2><h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: white;"></span></span></h2><h2 style="line-height: 1.656; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: Arial; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Islamic Caliphate inadvertently brought Byzantium and Khazaria into alliance. Likewise the Khagar acted as proxy of the Byzantines, in consolidated opposition to</span><a href="https://greatbrittania.blogspot.com/2020/12/ruriks-kievan-rus-russian-viking-origin.html" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: Arial; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: Arial; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Kievan Rus</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: Arial; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">’ control of Kiev; the western edge of the Khazar silk road, even though consistently disputing control over Crimea. Following the son of Saint Olga, who converted to Orthodox Christianity at the court of Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus in 957. Sviatoslav I Igorevich’s reign, his name meaning ‘holy glory’, created the largest European State at the time when moving the Kievan Rus’ capital from Kiev into retreat in modern day Romania. Following a failed Bulgarian campaign he was forced to accept peaceful terms with Byzantine emperor John I Tzimiskes, submitting southern Crimea as a concession. He was ambushed and killed at 30 years of age as a consequence. Following Sviatoslav's death, tensions among his sons grew. A war of legitimization followed first between Oleg and Yaropolk, in 976, with the later prevailing. In 977 his third son Vladimir fled Novgorod for Scandinavia, he subsequently raised an army of Varangians and returned in 980 to defeat Yaropolk becoming the sole ruler of Kievan Rus'. Converting to Chalcedonian Christianity he maintained peaceful accords at large since his father’s paganism was a main point of consternation with the Byzantine, and the Bulgars were crippled following his campaigns there.</span></span></span></h2><h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: white;"></span></span></h2><h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: white;"></span></span></h2><h2 style="line-height: 1.656; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: Arial; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Sources of the modern Byzantium-Khazaria alliance occur over disputation of the Eastern Roman Empires control of Constantinople. Under Byzantine Emperor Tiberius III, following the reigns of Justinian II who appeared before the Khazar Khāqān and married the Khāqān’s sister; Justinian II, the eldest son of Emperor Constantine IV, was raised as joint emperor in 681 on the fall of his uncles Heraclius and Tiberius, attaining the rank of Emperor at age 16. Three years later he thwarted the Arabs in Armenia usurping the Umayyad Caliphate partially regaining control over Cyprus. In addition to securing the incomes of Armenia and Iberia, he liberated 12,000 Lebanese Christian Maronites, who maintained resistance against the Caliphate. His first military campaign was in 688–689, in defeating the Bulgars of Macedonia; Justinian was able to enter Thessalonica, the second most important Byzantine city in Europe and prior under consistent invasion attempts from the Avars and Slavs. Provisioning for 30,000 Slavic troops which he had forcibly resettled in Anatolia, Justinian commenced military campaigns against the Arabs, which proved disastrous as the Arabs turned the mercenary Slavs against Justinian at the Battle of Sebastopolis. Armenia was claimed by the Patrician Symbatius who resumed dealings with the Arabs, but in turn was conquered by 695. Justinian II, after attempting genocide of the regional Slavs, commenced persecution of Manichean's, and became immensely unpopular for this and through his extreme taxation policies and forcible resettlement plans. Despite dedicating himself to a religious council and hence regional security, his reign was doomed. Firstly, in 695 the population rose up against Justinian, under Leontios, the strategos of Hellas, proclaiming him to be Emperor. Justinian was deposed, his nose was cut off, and he was exiled to Cherson in Crimea. Leontius, after a reign of three years, was in turn dethroned and imprisoned by Tiberius Apsimarus. It was then having escaped Crimea, Justinian, and taking to Khazar Khāqān, with a new golden nose, wed the Khāqān’s sister, renaming her Theodora at Baptismal. Theodora would soon enough herself save Justinan’s life. </span></span></span></h2><h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: white;"></span></span></h2><h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: white;"></span></span></h2><h2 style="line-height: 1.656; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: Arial; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Tiberios having heard of the marital alliance, bribed Busir for the head of Justinian. According to the chronicle of Theophanes the Confessor, ca. 704, Busir dispatched two agents to murder his brother-in-law, Balgitzin and Papatzys. The then pregnant Theodora, discovering the assassination plot, warned her husband Justinian II, who supposedly strangled both of his assassins. He then secretly set sail in a fishing boat back to Crimea, leaving Theodora under the protection of her brother. In 705, Justinian forged a new alliance with Tervel of Bulgaria, offering him the title Ceasar, and in ceding Bulgaria to him from the empire’s holdings and granting him his own daughter Anastasia to be wed. With an army of 15,000 Bulgarian horsemen, Justinian succeeded to invade Constantinople though by subterfuge via an unused water conduit. He successfully roused supporters, seizing control of the city in a midnight coup d'état. In deposing Tiberios III and reclaiming his throne, Theodora was crowned Augusta and their son Tiberios proclaimed co-Emperor to secure his succession rights. After the public execution of Tiberius and Leontios he blinded and exiled Patriarch Kallinikos I of Constantinople to Rome. Betraying Tervel in turn he failed to reclaim Bulgaria on military expedition, and while struggling against the Caliphate he claimed minor victories in Asia minor, specifically Cappadocia. </span></span></span></h2><h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: white;"></span></span></h2><h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: white;"></span></span></h2><h2 style="line-height: 1.656; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: Arial; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Requiring Pope John VII to recognize the decisions of the Quinisext Council, the Pope visited Constantinople and for the last time in over one thousand years. After receiving Holy Communion by the hands of the Pope, Justinian renewed all the privileges of the Roman Church. The Quinisext Canons found their way into Byzantine canonical collections even in the iconoclast period (despite the approval given to images of Christ in Canon 82). They did not, however, attain a wholly equal status to the canons of earlier councils until the great canonists of the twelfth century such as Balsamon. The immediate reaction of the Holy See was fiercely hostile, partly because two canons (13 and 55) explicitly criticized Roman practices, but more because Rome resented being expected to approve a whole sheaf of new canons retrospectively. In 711, however, Pope Constantine appears to have accepted a compromise whereby Rome accepted the validity of the canons in the East, while being allowed to continue existent western practices where these differed. Later a letter by Pope Hadrian I (dating to 785) citing Byzantine approval of the canons was misread in the West as a statement of approval by Hadrian himself. Partly in consequence of this error but also in view of their quality, Gratian (twelfth-century) cited many of the Quinisext Canons in his own great collection of canons, the Decretum. Where, however, they clashed with western canons or practice, he set them aside as representing Byzantine practice, just lacking universal validity. Gratian's work remained authoritative in the West until the first systematic Code of Catholic Canon Law was issued in 1917.</span></span></span></h2><h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: white;"></span></span></h2><h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: white;"></span></span></h2><h2 style="line-height: 1.656; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: Arial; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In retaliation for his treatment at the hands of the Khazars, Justinian II orchestrated an invasion of Crimea. Raising a Greek army of 100,000 soldiers, their Khazarian influence was underestimated. While succeeding to establish a governor in the city of Cherson, three quarters of the army didn’t return to Constantinople due to excessive weather, loyalties or both. The son of Armenian patrician Nikephorus was Philippicus, originally named Bardanes; who with support of the Monothelites during the first rebellion against Justinian, was after pretension for the throne, relegated to Cephalonia by Tiberius Apsimarus, and subsequently banished to Cherson by order of Justinian. When Cherson rebelled against the second reign of Justinian it was under General Bardanes with Khazar support. Emperor Justinian's forces thus after visibly failing to take Cherson, joined the rebellion, returning to seize Constantinople. Philippikus (General Bardanes) hence obtained the throne from Justinian II whilst he was on route to Armenia, and subsequently captured and beheaded. Justinian’s son Tiberius was likewise apprehended at the sanctuary of St. Mary's Church in Blachernae and executed. Among the first acts as Emperor was the deposition of Cyrus, the orthodox patriarch of Constantinople, in favor of John VI, a member of the Emperor Philippicus' private sect. Consequently, summoning a Conciliabulum of eastern bishops to abolish the canons of the Sixth Ecumenical Council, the Holy See refused to recognize the Emperor or his patriarch. Tervel (Caesar) took upon the opportunity to plunder Constantinople as far as the citadel. After only two years in power, the Opsikion troops rebelled in Thrace. Several of their officers captured and blinded Philippicus in the hippodrome, while he died in the same year.</span></span></span></h2>Jason Steven Jowetthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06299966996014985455noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5256145196336009922.post-19445545783792556542020-12-28T20:16:00.040-08:002021-02-07T19:11:44.523-08:00 Rurik’s Kievan Rus’; Russian-Viking origin<div style="text-align: left;"><h2><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: white; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="background-color: #990000;">Nestor's Chronicle or The Chronicle of Nestor, is a history of the Kievan Rus' from about 850 to 1110, originally compiled in Kiev about 1113 by Nestor (c. 1056 – c. 1114); hence scholars refer often to Nestor's Chronicle or of Nestor's manuscript as the source of Russian history. The original compilation now lost, was produced at the court of Sviatopolk II of Kiev (ruled 1093–1113), likely bearing Sviatopolk's Scandinavian allegiances. Nestor's Pan-Scandinavian attitude was confirmed by a Polish historian and archaeologist Wladyslaw Duczko, and he argued that the central aims of the Chronicle’s narrative was to ‘give an explanation how the Rurikids came to power in the lands of the Slavs, why the dynasty was the only legitimate one and why all the princes should terminate their internal fights and rule in peace and brotherly love’. Later accounts are the Laurentian Codex compiled by the Nizhegorod monk Laurentius for the Prince Dmitry Konstantinovich in 1377, which details the Russian periods until 1305, whilst the years 898–922, 1263–83 and 1288–94 are missing in context. Whereas the Laurentian (Muscovite) text traces the Kievan legacy through to the Muscovite princes. Another, the Hypatian traces the Kievan legacy through the rulers of the Halych principality. The Hypatian codex was rediscovered in Kiev in the 1620s written in Church Slavonic language.</span></span></span></span></h2></div><h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: #990000; color: white; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Primary Chronicle (Nestor's) describes the Rurik dynastic origin while accosted by the Tributaries of the Varangians (Vikings), “There was no law among them, but tribe rose against tribe. Discord thus ensued among them, and they began to war one against another. They said to themselves, "Let us seek a prince who may rule over us and judge us according to the Law." They accordingly came from overseas to the Varangian Russes: these particular Varangians (Vikings) were known as Russes, just as some are called Swedes, and others Normans, English, and Gotlanders, for they were thus named. The Chuds, the Slavs, the Krivichians, and the Ves' then said to the people of Rus', "Our land is great and rich, but there is no order in it. Come to rule and reign over us." They thus selected three brothers, with their kinsfolk, who took with them all the Russes and migrated. The oldest, Rurik, located himself in Novgorod; the second, Sineus, at Beloozero; and the third, Truvor, in Izborsk. On account of these Varangians, the district of Novgorod became known as the land of Rus”. The account is precluded by a vast narrative traced back to the descendants of Noah; Shem, Ham and Japeth, with the latter's descendants being Varangians, Swedes, Normans, and the Russians. Andrew the Apostle charted the Slavic migrations in detail surrounding the River Danube, as running east to west and straight across Eastern Europe, in addition to the western source of the Danube which was also the source of the Vistula river running north to south and reaching the Black Sea across modern Poland.</span></span></span></h2><h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: #990000; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: white; white-space: pre-wrap;">In AD 860, Rurik, the Varangian chieftain of the Rus' who maintained control of Ladoga, drove his kinsmen, the Vikings, back beyond the sea in refusing them further tribute. His port at Lagoda was a key strategic entry to the Balkans linking Kiev with Constantipole to which his descendants would take arms. The Greek-Arabic trade goods flowed along this route by the Dniester or Dnieper rivers, an alternative to the western route via the Vistula. The Russians so set out to govern themselves under Rurik I who remained in power until death in 879. Rurik bequeathed his realm to Oleg, who belonged to his kin, and entrusted to Oleg's hands his son Igor, who was too young to rule. At the time and according to Olof von Dalin, Askold (as Asleik Bjornson (Diar)),</span><span style="color: white; white-space: pre-wrap;"> was the son of Björn Ironside, who ruled over Kiev with Dir. Accounts later relayed </span></span><span style="background-color: #990000; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: white; white-space: pre-wrap;">askold Dir as termed by the Rus' of their first Kievan ruler, whether in kind, meaning '</span><span style="color: white; white-space: pre-wrap;">strange</span><span style="color: white; white-space: pre-wrap;">'. The Primary Chronicle details; Oleg set forth, taking with him many warriors from among the Varangians, the Chuds, the Slavs, the Merians and all the Krivichians. He thus arrived with his Krivichians before Smolensk, captured the city, and set up a garrison there. Soon he went on to capture Lyubech, before arriving at the hills of Kyiv. Here he saw how Askold and Dir reigned and so schemed to take control. Hiding his warriors in their boats, he went forward in a peaceful approach to Askold and Dir bearing the child Igor as any stranger on his way to Greece on an errand. Though on summons to which Askold and Dir responded his soldiers emerged, when Oleg denounced him and bringing forward Igor who Oleg proclaimed as the son of Rurik. Askold and Dir, were carried off to the Hungarian hill, executed and buried there, where the castle of Ol'ma now stands. Igor the heir of Rurik would twice besiege Constantinople in 941 and 944, via the Kyiv stronghol and although Greek fire destroyed part of his fleet, he concluded a favorable treaty in 945 with the Eastern Roman Emperor Constantine VII. In 913 and 944 the Rus' plundered the Arabs in the Caspian Sea during the Caspian expeditions of the Rus'. The Byzantines consequently accounted for Igor’s torture and death while collecting tribute from the Drevlians in 945. The Primary Chronicle points out that he attempted to collect tribute for a second time in a month. Igor's wife, Olga of Kyiv, avenged him by punishing the Drevlians and mandated a new legal system of tribute gathering (poliudie) as a result.</span></span></span></h2><h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: #990000; color: white; white-space: pre-wrap;">It was the Polyanians (Ukrainian: Поляни, Polyany, Russian: Поляне Polyane, Polish: Polanie) indeed who had built Kiev and named it after their ruler, Kyi. </span><span style="background-color: #990000; color: white; white-space: pre-wrap;">Polyanians were</span><span style="background-color: #990000; color: white; white-space: pre-wrap;"> an East Slavic tribe between the 6th and the 9th century, which inhabited both sides of the Dnieper river, east of the Black Sea, running from Liubech to Rodnia and also down the lower streams of the rivers Ros', Sula, Stuhna, Teteriv, Irpin', Desna and Pripyat. In the Early Middle Ages there were two separate Slavic tribes bearing the name of Polans, one being the eastern, and the other being the western Polan, a West Slavic tribe. The name Polan is derived from the Old East Slavic word поле, meaning ‘field’, as according to the Primary Chronicle, such was entitled to those who lived in their fields and hence as farmers, the people were, whilst dependent on water for their crops, not necessarily so on the direct yields from the riverbanks nor it's boatmen. In the 9th and 10th centuries the Polans had well-developed arable land Farming, Cattle-breeding, Hunting, Fishing, Wild-hive Beekeeping and various handicrafts such as Blacksmithing, Casting, Pottery, Goldsmithing, etc. Thousands of (pre-Polan) kurgans, found by archaeologists in the Polan region, indicates their land had a relatively high population density too. They lived in small families in semi Dug-outs ("earth-houses") and wore homespun clothes and modest jewelry. Before converting to Christianity, the inhabitants used to burn their dead and erect kurgan-like embankments over them. Concerning the nomenclature of the distinct languages emergent during the Middle Ages; Ruthenian or Old Ruthenian is one source for a split, where in modern texts, the language in question is sometimes called "Old Ukrainian" or "Old Belarusian" (Ukrainian: Староукраїнська мова) and (Belarusian: Старабеларуская мова). As Ruthenian always bore a diglossic opposition to Church Slavonic, the vernacular language was and still is often called prosta(ja) mova (Cyrillic проста(я) мова), literally as ‘simple speech’.</span></span></span></h2><h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: #990000; color: white; white-space: pre-wrap;">Under the rulership of Emperor Heraclius, many of the Slavs were invaded and oppressed by the Bulgars, Avars, and Pechenegs. The Slavs from the Dnieper fell under the lordship of the Khazars of whom had had command of Kiev preceding the Rus', and were required to pay tribute. By the middle of the twelfth century, Kievan Rus′ had dissolved into independent principalities, each ruled by a different branch of the Rurik dynasty. Conflict was yet integral, such as Mstislav Vladimirovich’s campaigns, one of the earliest attested princes of Tmutarakan and Chernigov in Kievan Rus. He was a younger son of Vladimir the Great, Grand Prince of Kiev. His father appointed him to rule Tmutarakan, an important fortress by the Strait of Kerch, in or after 988. Subsequently he invaded the core territories of Kievan Rus, which were ruled by his brother, Yaroslav the Wise (978 – 1054), in 1024. Although Mstislav could not take Kiev, he forced the East Slavic tribes dwelling to the east of the Dniester River to accept his suzerainty. Yaroslav the Wise also accepted the division of Kievan Rus' along the river after Mstislav had defeated him in a battle fought at Listven by Chernigov (presents-day Chernihiv, Ukraine). Mstislav transferred his seat to the latter town, and became the first ruler of the principality emergent. </span></span></span></h2><h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: #990000; color: white; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Rurik dynasty underwent a schism after the death of Yaroslav the Wise in 1054, dividing into three branches on the basis of descent from three successive ruling Grand Princes: Izyaslav (1024–1078), Svyatoslav (1027–1076), and Vsevolod (1030–1093). In the 10th century the Council of Liubech made some amendments to the rules of succession and so divided Ruthenia into several autonomous principalities that had equal rights to obtain the throne of Kiev. The Rurik dynasty (or Rurikids) ultimately became the Tsardom of Russia whilst the last Rurikid to rule Russia, Tsar Vasily IV (from the House of Shuysky, cadet branch of the House of Rurik), reigning until 1610; Vasily Tatishchev referred to the Loachim Chronicle in referencing his own legacy as partisan to the Wends (Old English: Winedas; Old Norse: Vindr; German: Wenden, Winden; Danish: vendere; Swedish: vender; Polish: Wendowie).</span></span></span></h2><div style="text-align: left;"><h2><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></h2></div>Jason Steven Jowetthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06299966996014985455noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5256145196336009922.post-38907841849578933882019-07-10T07:49:00.003-07:002023-03-02T02:14:38.407-08:00Yazidis, Kurdistan & the Ba'ath; the Iraqi wars<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Yazidism, a religion also called Sharfadin by Yazidis a Kurdish minority, is local to northern Syria, Turkey and Iraq, reaching Armenia and Georgia. A monotheistic religion which has elements of Ancient Mesopotamian religions, and similarities with Abrahamic religions such as Christianity, Judaism and Islam. As a strictly autonomous creed, the Yazidis are bound in marriage with other Yazidi, and through the limitation of transition in Yazidis identity across subsequent foreign-generations. Yezidis honor sacred trees. Women must not cut their hair. Marriage is forbidden in April. Reverence of angels and particularly a peacock-angel relates to Assyrian belief and bird-worship. Yazidis believe in reincarnation, sacrifice bulls, practice baptism, pray towards the sun, and relish mystical Islam. Similarly to the Judaic religion, they harbor specialized rituals and beliefs, curtailing outside influence (except of inter-generational advance of Jewish females alone), which also can incite contempt in the form of exclusion or worse yet alienation. Both religions have been heavily endangered hence under extreme persecution. Along with branches of Christianity and Islam all of these denominations were targeted by ISIS for which world powers have intervened on the middle-east and until the return of Yazidis to their homelands of Mosul in 2019.<br />
<br />
In 1414 Kurds initially attacked the Yazidis in the mountains of Hakkari destroying the holy temple Lalish and desecrating the tomb of Sheikh Adi. In 1585, another attack followed in the Sinjar Mountains under orders of Ali Saidi Beg from Bohtan totaling 600 casualties. In 1832, Kurdish troops under emir Mohammed Pasha Rawanduz (Mire Kor, the blind prince) massacred Yazidis in Khatarah. Subsequently, the Yazidis in Shekhan were largely eradicated. On the next attempt his troops occupied over 300 Yazidis villages and then following, kidnapped over 10,000 Yazidis mostly all of whom were forced into conversion to the Islamic creed. In 1832, emir Bedir Khan Beg (Bedirxan Beg, the prince of Bohtan) with his troops committed a massacre of the Yazidis in Shekhan. Kurds there killed almost the whole Yazidis population but some escaped to Sinjar. In the next year, 1833, the Aqrah region was struck by the Kurdish emir Mohammed Pasha Rawanduz and his soldiers. 500 Yazidis causalities followed in the upper Zab before another attack on Yazidis succeeded in Sinjar. In 1915-1923, Yazidis and Armenians faced genocide by Kurds with the tally of 300,000 Yazidis lives. <br />
<br />
British forces in defeat of the Ottomans occupied Iraq and imposed direct colonial rule for several years (with the exception of Kirkuk). In recognition of Greater Kurdistan, Southern Kurdistan and Iraq were distinct and regarded for unmolested autonomous development. Contrary to colonial rule in November 1918, Sheikh Mahmud Barzanji of the Qadiriyah Sufi family and the Barzanji clan, city of Sulaymaniyah, assumed power in rebellion and with military force from October 1918 until June 1919, creating his national flag, stamps and replacing the official-state Turkish language with Kurdish, the official language of Kurdistan. Charged and sentenced for the insurgence, the British not only granted him clemency, but whence invited back from exile, was assisted to assume control of Kurdistan as it's King. The international treaties set originally at the League of Nations by Woodrow Wilson for self-determination, then Sharif Pasha at Paris (Versailles) Peace Conference 1919, would of course fail to be implemented. Without official recognition by firstly the British Crown, at the Treaty of Lausanne, between Turkey and the victorious Allies in 1923, in superseding the Treaty of Sèvres, no specific reference to the Kurds was asserted; instead a promise for abiding tolerances for minorities in general. The shift resulted in a new mandate for colonial power over an incorporated Kurdistan into the political, economic and cultural realm of Iraq. Against resistance British forces eliminated the Kurdish national movement with a series of bombings, destroying Sheikh Mahmud's government and annexing Kurdistan to Iraq.<br />
<br />
As most Kurdish people of Iraq lived in the mountainous terrain of the Mosul Vilayet, central rule from Baghdad wasn't realistic, yet it was upon the discovery of oil in northern Iraq, that the British were unwilling to relinquish the area, nor grant autonomy and economic exclusivity to an ethnic state. The Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC) hence took on, known prior to 1929 as the Turkish Petroleum Company (TPC). Between 1925 and 1961 the company had a virtual monopoly on all oil exploration and production in Iraq. Today, it is jointly owned by some of the world's largest oil companies and headquartered in London, England.
TPC had obtained concession to explore for oil in 1925 from the new Iraqi government, in return for a
promise that the Iraqi government would receive a royalty for every ton
of oil extracted, but this was linked to the oil companies' profits and not
payable for the first 20 years. On 31 July 1928 the shareholders signed a formal partnership agreement
to include the Near East Development Corporation (NEDC), an American consortium of five large US oil companies. By 1934, the NEDC comprised only two shareholders, Standard Oil of New Jersey and Socony, which had merged with the Vacuum Oil Company to form Socony-Vacuum in 1931.<br />
<br />
During the Hashemite Monarchy (1932–58), there were no serious issues between the IPC and the Iraqi government as the Hashemites
were extremely pro-west. In fact, they had been installed by the
British and so retained loyalty. They were dependent on
the British militarily and had essentially pledged allegiance to them
through the Baghdad Pact.
The Hashemites' main disputes centered on increasing the amount of
crude oil extracted, getting more Iraqis involved in the process of
producing the oil and getting more royalties. In 1952, terms that were
more generous to the Iraqi government were negotiated. These terms were
largely based on the far more lucrative terms of the Saudi-Aramco "50/50" agreement of December 1950. One could argue that a determinant in these negotiations was the friendly atmosphere in which they were conducted. This soon soured however, and Abd al-Karim Qasim, a nationalist Iraqi Army general seized power in a 1958 coup
d'état two years after Kurdistan's original King died. The Iraqi Hashemite monarchy established by King Faisal I in 1921, led by King Faisal II, Prince 'Abd al-Ilah, and Prime Minister Nuri al-Said was trumped, with both killed during the uprising. The General ruled the country
as Prime Minister until his downfall and death in 1963, but not before his Iraqi government enacted Law No. 80, which
expropriated 99.5 per cent of the IPC group’s concession areas without
compensation and put an immediate stop on oil exploration. Before
the coup, Abd al-Karim Qasim had incited support over just this, that the IPC's interests lay with western
nations counter to Iraqi sovereignty. A subsequent military coup called the Ramadan Revolution was executed by the Ba'ath Party and the National Council of the Revolutionary Command which overthrew and executed Abd al-Karim Qasim's communist government in 1963 after two days of heavy combat between the 8th and 10th of February 1963. By June 1 1972, nationalized IPC operations had been fully assumed for control by the Iraq National Oil Company.<br />
<br />
<br />
Kurdistan remains a parliamentary democracy with its own regional Parliament consisting of 111 seats at the capital, <a href="https://greatbrittania.blogspot.com/2019/07/kurdish-assyrian-turco-mongolian-timurid.html" target="_blank">Erbil</a>. The new Constitution of Iraq defines the Kurdistan Region as a federal entity of Iraq, and establishes Kurdish and Arabic as Iraq's joint official languages. Kurdistan's struggle for sovereignty so maintained by the Peshmerga and abridged by the March 1970 autonomy agreement between the Kurdish opposition and the Iraqi government was set up after the Aylul revolts; two successive Kurdish-Iraqi civil wars, and prior to Saddam Hussein's Presidency of the Ba'ath Party. His maintenance of rule with the Iron Fist saw by 1991 and the end of the Gulf war, Saddam, acting to suppress
internal revolt with Iranian aligned Marsh Arabs. Relations severely deteriorated with an assassination attempt
on POTUS in Kuwait, and expulsion of UN Inspectors. A major four-day bombing campaign on Iraqi targets called Operation Desert Fox took effect from 16 December
1998, to 19 December 1998, by the United States and the United Kingdom.
The contemporaneous justification for the strikes was Iraq's failure to
comply with United Nations Security Council resolutions and its interference with United Nations Special Commission inspectors. In 2003 thus, the USA led a coalition force to
dispose the Ba'ath Party, imprisoning Saddam on charges of war crimes
against the Iraqi Shi’a for which he was executed in 2005.<br />
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Jason Steven Jowetthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06299966996014985455noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5256145196336009922.post-40190129062039339182019-07-04T10:41:00.003-07:002021-06-08T07:59:12.967-07:00Kurdish, Assyrian & the Turco-Mongolian Timurid<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-style: normal;">Erbil
is the capital of Iraqi Kurdistan and appeared</span></span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;">
</span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-style: normal;">originally</span></span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;">
</span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-style: normal;">in
literary sources from</span></span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;">
</span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-style: normal;">2300
BC in the archives of the Eblaite Kingdom which is considered the
regions</span></span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;">
</span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-style: normal;">original
royal dynastic hegemon; utilizing expansion and trade throughout the
Levant and with neighboring sovereign powers. According to Giovanni
Pettinato, Erbil, as mentioned in two tablets was named</span></span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;">
</span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-style: normal;">Irbilum.
At the end of the 3rd millennium BC records of the Ur III period
detailed the city too as so named Urbilum. King Shulgi destroyed
Urbilum in his 43rd regnal year, after which</span></span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;">
</span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-style: normal;">his
successor Amar-Sin, incorporated the site under the</span></span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;">
</span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-style: normal;">Ur
III state. In the 18th century BC, Erbil appears in a list of cities
that was</span></span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;">
</span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-style: normal;">conquered
by Shamshi-Adad of Upper Mesopotamia and Dadusha of Eshnunna during
their campaign against the land of Qabra. During the 2nd millennium
BC, Erbil was incorporated into Assyria. Its populace gradually
converted from the Mesopotamian religion between the 1st and 4th
centuries to the Chaldean Catholic Church Christianity (and to a
lesser degree to the Syriac Orthodox Church), with Pkidha
traditionally becoming its first bishop around 104 AD, although the
ancient Mesopotamian religion remained in the region until the 10th
c. AD. The metropolitanate of Ḥadyab in Arbela (Syriac: </span></span></span></span><span style="font-family: "lohit devanagari";"><span lang="hi-IN"><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-style: normal;">ܐܪܒܝܠ</span></span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;">
</span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><i>Arbel</i></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-style: normal;">)
became a centre of eastern Syriac Christianity until late in the
Middle Ages. When</span></span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;">
</span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-style: normal;">Christian
persecutions begun in earnest,</span></span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;">
</span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-style: normal;">Erbil's</span></span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;">
</span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-style: normal;">Christian
governor was said to have been</span></span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;">
</span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-style: normal;">martyred</span></span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;">
</span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-style: normal;">in
358. A Nestorian school was there founded by the School of Nisibis
whilst Erbil was predicated by Zoroastrians, and as Erbil served as a
seat of the <a href="https://greatbrittania.blogspot.com/2018/07/the-assyrian-church-kurdish-ottomans.html">Assyrian
Church</a> of the East many church fathers came from the city also
well-known authors in Syriac. </span></span></span></span>
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<br />
<span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;">During
the Neo-Assyrian period, the name of the city was written as
Arbi-Ilu, meaning 'Four Gods' and it so</span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;">
</span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;">remains</span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;">
</span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;">comparable</span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;">
</span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;">with
the cities of Babylon and Assur. Inscriptions from Assurbanipal
record oracular dreams inspired by goddess Ishtar of Erbil.
Assurbanipal the King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from 668 BC to c.
627 BC likely held court in Erbil, receiving there envoys from Rusa
II of Urartu after the defeat of the Elamite ruler Teumman. After the
fall</span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"> </span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;">of
the Assyrian Empire, Erbil was controlled by the Medes when</span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;">
</span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;">Cyaxares
is said to have</span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;">
</span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;">settled
a number of people from the Ancient Iranian tribe of Sagartians in
the city (Arrapha in modern Kirkuk), and</span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;">
</span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;">as
a reward for their help in the capture of Nineveh.</span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"> </span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;">The
city was</span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"> later
</span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;">incorporated
into the Achaemenid Empire, after</span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;">
</span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;">which
becoming</span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"> </span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;">part
of the empire of Alexander the Great following</span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;">
</span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;">the
Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. The partition of Alexander the Great’s</span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;">
</span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;">empire
by his generals relegated the</span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;">
</span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;">city
then</span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"> </span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;">called
Arabella or Arbela under</span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;">
the </span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;">Seleucid
Kingdom. After the 1st c. BCE, the Roman and Parthian Empire fought
over control of Erbil, or Arbira as it was also known. </span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;">Following
the Muslim conquest of Persia, the Sasanid province of Assuristan was dissolved, and from the mid 7th century
AD the region saw a gradual influx of Muslim peoples, predominantly
Arabs, Kurds and Turkic peoples. </span></span>The most notable
Kurdish tribe in the region were the Hadhbani, of which several
individuals also acted as governors for the city from the late 10th
century until the 12th century when it was conquered by the Zengids
and its governorship given to the Turkic Begtegenids, who retained
the city during the Ayyubid era. Yaqut al-Hamawi further describes
Erbil as being mostly a Kurdish population in the 13th century. <span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;">The
modern Kurdish name of the city is</span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;">
</span><i>Hewlêr.</i><span style="font-variant: normal;"> </span></span></span>
<br />
<span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;">The
s</span></span>iege of Erbil by the Ilkhanid Mongols would occur in
1258–59 after the Mongols failed to capture the citadel with the
timely arrival of a Caliphate army. It would be however after the
fall of Baghdad to Hülegü, a grandson of Genghis Khan, as the last
Begtegenid ruler surrendered, that they returned to conqueror the
Kurdish garrison of Arbil after a six month siege. Hülegü appointed
an Assyrian Christian governor to the town, and a Syriac Orthodox
Church was founded. Oïrat amir Nauruz would sustain persecutions of
the cities Christians, Jews and Buddhists throughout the south
western Mongol empire and in earnest by 1295 and lasting 2 years,
deeply effecting the indigenous Assyrian Christians. In Spring 1310 a
civil war struck the city as Assyrians took the citadel fleeing
persecution. When the siege by Ilkhanate troops and Kurdish tribesmen
succeeded under governor Malek, the Assyrian defenders and much of
the lower town populous were also slaughtered.</span></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Holding
on some generations yet, the Assyrians of Erbil were maintained until
total destruction of the city by Timur in 1397. Timur, Taimur or best
known as Amir Timur or Tamerlane a Turco-Mongol Persianate, was b</span></span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;">orn
into the Barlas confederation in Transoxiana on 9 April 1336, Timur
gained control of the western Chagatai Khanate by 1370. From that
base, he led military campaigns across Western, South and Central
Asia, the Caucasus and southern Russia, and emerged as the most
powerful ruler in the Muslim world after defeating the Mamluks of
Egypt and Syria, the emerging Ottoman Empire, and the declining Delhi
Sultanate. Thus founding</span> <span style="font-weight: normal;">the
Timurid Empire, </span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">a
Sunni Muslim dynasty</span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;">
</span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">in
the region and inevitably the Mughal Empire (1526–1857) on the
Indian subcontinent, as through his</span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;">
</span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">great
great grandson Babur. His Turco-Mongolians were formed of the army of
Genghis Khan, a</span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;">
</span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">people
who settled today’s Kazakhstan, and</span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;">
</span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">who</span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;">
</span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">became</span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;">
</span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Turkicized
whilst also adopting Iranian fine arts. Timur was considered a great
patron of arts</span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;">
</span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">and
architecture, inspired by</span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;">
</span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Ibn
Khaldun and Hafiz-i Abru;</span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;">
</span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">notably
sparing</span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;"> </span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">all
the artisans’ lives</span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;">
</span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">during
the sacking of Aleppo and Damascas, and for export. Solely
responsible for the effective destruction of the Nestorian Christian
Church of the East, enslavement of some 60,000 Armenian and Georgian
Christians, along with the murder of around 17 million people at 5%
of the world’s population of the time; Timur whence ravaging
Anatolia captured Smyrna, beheading it’s Hospitalers the
humanitarian arm of the Knights Templar.</span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Erbil
(and all of Iraq)</span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;">
</span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">passed
into the hands of the Ottoman Turks in the 16th century, becoming</span></span></span><span style="font-variant: normal;">
</span><span style="font-variant: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">part
of the Musul Vilayet in the Ottoman Empire for 400 years until World War
I. The Ottomans and their Kurdish and Turcoman allies were defeated
by the British Empire, with the aid of the Chaldeans and Armenians.</span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
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Jason Steven Jowetthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06299966996014985455noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5256145196336009922.post-21755742197850946082019-01-06T08:19:00.000-08:002019-07-10T21:08:33.937-07:00Boer Wars & the Zulu; the French-European 'New World' Revolutions<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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The Revolution in France which overthrew the monarchy,
established a republic, and eventually culminated in a dictatorship under
Napoleon; was sparked by successive generations of philosophers, bearing witness
to the colonial realities of their ‘new world’. Based most innocently in <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">scientific
academies</span>, <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Masonic lodges</span>, <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">literary
salons</span>, <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">coffee houses</span> and through the advances in <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">printed books</span>
and <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">pamphlets</span>,
the scientific revolution was readying for a realist world order, despising the
inferior indoctrination's of tradition, and propelling contemporary vanguardism. Idealizing the social contract and enforcing a separation of Church and State,
Lockean sentiments were for ‘Life, Liberty and Property’ and surrounding
Rousseau, and Hobbesian thought, belief for the natural rights of man were to
security in property as so valid in deriving from direct labor. The value of
material certainty hence wasn’t in attributions of the divine right which the
British had similarly displaced in favor of liberal democracy, rather and as
which by what King Louis XVI fell in-line and was ultimately martyred for; in
liberation. In reforming his French government in accordance with <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Enlightenment</span> ideas Louis
came under fire from his upper class. In efforts to abolish <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">serfdom</span>,
remove the <i><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">taille</span></i>,
and increase tolerance toward non-Catholics. <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">French
nobility</span> rejected Louis’ implementations for <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">deregulation</span>
of the <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">grain</span>
market further, and advocation for <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">economic liberal</span>ism. Nature though dealt an
unfortunate blow too as bread prices soared among bad harvests, and food
scarcity would <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">prompt revolt</span>.</div>
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From 1776, Louis XVI who had interceded British sovereignty in
a North American Colonial revolt, was directly underpinning his French colony in
Canada, however sowed the republican revolutionary seed of which would be his
demise. Seeking their <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">independence from Great Britain</span>,
which was realized in the 1783 Treaty of Paris, the USA’s influence in France
was to swell over its ensuing debt and financial crisis, all contributing to
the unpopularity of the <i><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Ancien
Régime</span></i>. This led to the convening of the <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Estates-General of 1789</span>
when discontent among the members of France's middle and lower classes resulted
in strengthened opposition to the French aristocracy and to the <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">absolute monarchy</span>, of
which Louis and his wife, Queen <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Marie
Antoinette</span>, were final representatives. Increasing tensions and
violence marked by events such as the <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">storming of the Bastille</span>
during which riots in Paris forced Louis to definitively recognize the
legislative authority of the <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">National Assembly</span>; led to a
famous demise of the Royal line, precluding Louis’ execution (similarly as
Charles faced the guillotine in England). It was Marie Antoinette’s audacious
statement on the rebel cause which endured, as said of those invading dissenters;
“Let them have their cake, and eat it”.</div>
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In the aftermath of the <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">French
Revolution</span></span>, the <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">War of the First Coalition</span></span></span>
broke out in 1792 and France was invaded by <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Prussia</span></span></span> and the <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Holy Roman Empire</span></span></span>. After two
years of fighting, the Austrian Netherlands and Liège were captured by the
French in 1794 and annexed into France. The Dutch Republic collapsed in 1795
and became <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">a French
client state</span></span></span>. The Belgian Revolution broke out on 25
August 1830, inspired by the recent <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">July
Revolution</span></span></span> in France. A military intervention in
September failed to defeat the rebels in <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Brussels</span></span></span>, radicalizing the movement. Belgium was declared an independent state on 4
October 1830. A constitutional monarchy was established under <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">King Leopold I</span></span></span>. William I, Prince
of Orange and the first King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, refused
to accept the secession of Belgium, and launched the <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Ten Days' Campaign</span></span></span> in August
1831, a major military offensive into Belgium. Though initially successful, the
French intervened to lend incontrovertible support to the Belgians. As tensions
abated a settlement was agreed at the <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Treaty of London</span></span></span>
in 1839, whence the Dutch recognized Belgian independence, in exchange for
territorial concessions. The frontier between the two countries was finally
fixed by the <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Treaty of Maastricht</span></span></span>
in 1843 when additionally Luxembourg was granted autonomous status in <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">personal union</span></span></span> with the
Dutch. The impact of the regional dispute was to reverberate across the globe
however, and lead to prolonged infighting among vassal states, and deeply
concern the viable colonial mandates of the traditional imperial regimes,
expressed as the necessity of suzerainty. </div>
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From 1652 to 1795 the <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Dutch East India Company</span></span></span>
had controlled<span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"> the rich lands of South Africa</span></span>,
but and due to the said political accords, the <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">United
Kingdom</span></span></span> incorporated the country into the <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">British Empire</span></span></span> in 1806. At
the time the term <span class="MsoHyperlink"><i><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Afrikaner</span></span></i></span>
was generally used in modern-day South Africa for the Afrikaans-speaking white
population of South Africa, and descendants of <i>boer</i> settlers. From time
to time, servants in the direct employment of the Dutch East India Company were
endowed with freedoms known as the right of freeburghers, however the company indeed
retained the power to reacquire these free-folk for direct service if deemed
necessary. This inevitably created wide scale fear and tension since likewise
any freeman’s children would also be committed to duties. The freeburghers who
would go on to wage a guerrilla war and set the stage for prolonged oppression
had their origins as so no different from the colonial united states of the new
world. The advancing boundaries of their ‘white territories’ were originally
limited to beyond <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Sneeuberge</span></span></span>,
the northern boundary of the colony, and as new lands were sought in classed ‘treks’
by forcing distance between the freemen and the company, the company initiated
an authoritarian standard for these emigrants, and established then in
magistracy at <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Swellendam</span></span></span>
in 1745, and another at <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Graaff
Reinet</span></span></span> in 1786. The <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Gamtoos
River</span></span></span> had been declared, c. 1740, the eastern frontier
of the <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">colony</span></span></span>;
whence that was breached the Great Fish River was earmarked, and bringing the
colony into danger with the local warlike <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Bantu</span></span></span>
tribes.<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span>In 1795 the
heavily taxed burghers of the frontier districts, who were afforded no
protection against the Bantus, expelled the officials of the <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Dutch East India Company</span></span>, and set up
independent governments at <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Swellendam</span></span></span>
and <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Graaff Reinet</span></span></span>.</div>
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The Boer Wars weren’t soon to commence but in 1795 <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Holland</span></span></span> who having fallen
under <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">the revolutionary government of France</span></span></span>,
saw the British force under <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">General</span></span></span> Sir <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">James Henry Craig</span></span></span> embark for
<span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Cape Town</span></span></span> to secure the colony
for the <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Prince of Orange</span></span></span>,
a refugee in England at the time in so escaping prosecution by the French. <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">The governor of Cape Town</span></span> at first refused
to obey the instructions from the prince; but, when the British proceeded to
take forcible possession, he capitulated. His action was hastened by the fact
that the Khoikhoi, traditionally <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">nomadic
pastoralist</span></span></span> non-Bantu <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">indigenous</span></span></span>
population of southwestern Africa, in deserting their former masters, embraced
the British. The burghers of Graaff Reinet did not surrender until a force had
been sent against them; in 1799 and again in 1801 they rose in revolt. In
February 1803, as a result of the <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">peace
of Amiens</span></span></span> (February 1803), the colony was handed over
to the <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Batavian
Republic</span></span></span> (ended on 5 June 1806, with the accession of <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Louis I</span></span></span> to the <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">throne of Holland</span></span></span>), which
introduced many needed reforms, as had the British during their eight years'
rule. One of the first acts of General Craig had been to abolish torture in the
administration of justice. Still the country remained essentially Dutch, and
few British settlers were attracted to it. Its cost to the British exchequer
during this period was <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">£</span></span></span>16,000,000.
The Batavian Republic entertained very liberal views as to the administration
of the country, but they had little opportunity for giving them effect. </div>
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When the <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">War of the Third Coalition</span></span></span>
broke out in 1803, a British force was once more sent to the Cape. After an
engagement (January 1806) on the shores of Table Bay, the Dutch garrison of <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Castle of Good Hope</span></span></span> surrendered
to the British under <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Sir David Baird</span></span></span>,
and in the <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">1814 Anglo-Dutch treaty</span></span></span>
the colony was ceded outright by Holland to <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">the
British crown</span></span></span>. At that time the colony extended to the
line of mountains guarding the vast central plateau, then called <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Bushmansland</span></span></span>, and had an area of
about 120,000 sq. m. and a population of some 60,000, of whom 27,000 were
whites, 17,000 free Khoikhoi and the rest slaves, mostly imported blacks and
Malays. The Boer population of course were little embracing of the British whose
presence was considered a cultural and economic threat, they set about founding
independent status in the Orange Free State and the Transvaal. As most similarly
the colonial British derived from British East India Company who competed for control
over the counties vast Gold, and Diamond resources. One <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">rebellion</span></span></span> which soon occurred was
known as <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Slachters Nek</span></span></span>,
in 1815, and was called ‘the most insane attempt ever made by a set of men to
wage war against their sovereign’. </div>
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By the 1850s the British Empire had colonies in southern
Africa bordering on various <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Boer</span> settlements, native African kingdoms such
as the Zulus, the <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Basotho</span> and numerous indigenous tribal areas
and states. <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Natal</span> in south-eastern Africa was
proclaimed a British colony on 4 May 1843 after the British government had annexed
the <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Boer</span>
<span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Republic of Natalia</span>. Fierce conflict with
the <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Zulu</span>
population had led to the evacuation of <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Durban</span>,
and matters were brought to a head when three sons and a brother of the Zulu
chief Sirayo organized a raid into Natal and carried off two women who were
under British protection. <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Shaka Zulu</span>, of course had wraught his nation as
the first Zulu king through war and conquest, building the small Zulu tribe
into the Zulu Kingdom by 1825 which encompassed an area of around 11,500 square
miles (30,000 km<sup>2</sup>). In 1828 he was assassinated at <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Dukuza</span>
by one of his <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">inDuna’s</span>
and two of his half-brothers, one of whom, <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Dingane kaSenzangakhona</span>,
succeeded him as king. By the 1830s migrating Boers came into conflict with the
Zulu Kingdom, then ruled by Dingane. Dingane suffered a crushing defeat on 16
December 1838, when he attacked a group of 470 Voortrekker settlers led by <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Pretorius</span>
at the <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Battle of Blood River</span>. Dingane's half-brother,
<span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Mpande kaSenzangakhona</span>,
then defected with some 17,000 followers and allied with the Boers against
Dingane. Dingane was assassinated and Mpande became king of the Zulu empire.</div>
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In 1877, Sir <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Bartle
Frere</span> was made <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">High
Commissioner</span> for <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Southern
Africa</span> by Lord Carnarvon. Carnarvon appointed Frere to the position
on the understanding that he would work to enforce a confederation plan which
was tried and tested in Canada. In return Frere was to become the first British
governor of a federated southern African <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">dominion</span>.
Frere was sent to South Africa as High Commissioner to bring this plan about
but first faced the challenge of the independent states of the <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">South African Republic</span>,
informally known as the Transvaal Republic, and the Kingdom of <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Zululand</span>.
Bartle Frere wasted no time in putting the scheme forward by manufacturing a <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">casus
belli</span> against the Zulu, exaggerating the significance of a number of
recent incidents. The British would then annex the Transvaal, which represented
their biggest incursions into southern Africa to date. This was familiar
grounds already however as in 1868 the British annexed <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Basutoland</span>
(modern <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Lesotho</span>
in the <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Drakensberg</span>
Mountains, surrounded by the Orange Free State and Natal), following an appeal
from <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Moshesh</span>,
the leader of a mixed group of African refugees from the <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Zulu wars</span> who had sought British
protection against both the <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Boers</span> and the <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Zulus</span>.
The Zulu wars really fired up during the 1870s over skirmishes within the
Transvaal between the Boers and indigenous local tribes. In particular
intensifying struggles between the Boers and the <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Pedi</span>
led by Sekhukune I over labor and land resulted in the war of 1876, in which
the attacking Boers were defeated, in part because of the firepower bought with
the proceeds of early Pedi labor migration to the <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Kimberley diamond fields</span>. </div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
There were also serious tensions between the Transvaal
Republic and the Zulus led by King <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Cetshwayo</span>.
The Zulus occupied a kingdom located to the southeast, bordered on the one side
by the Transvaal Republic and on the other by British Natal. Upon taking the
throne, King Cetshwayo had expanded his army and reintroduced many of the
paramilitary practices of the famous <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Shaka</span>, king of
the Zulus. He had also started equipping his <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">impis</span> with
firearms, although this was a gradual process and the majority had only
shields, knobkerries (clubs), throwing spears and the famous stabbing spear,
the <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Iklwa</span>.
Over 40,000 Zulu warriors were a formidable force on their own home ground,
their lack of modern weaponry notwithstanding. King Cetshwayo then banished
European missionaries from his land, and there were suggestions that he might
also have become involved in inciting other native African peoples to rebel
against the Boers in the Transvaal. The Transvaal Boers became more and more
concerned, but King Cetshwayo's policy was to maintain good relations with the
British in Natal in an effort to counter the Boer threat. </div>
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The Transvaal Boers, who led by <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Paul
Kruger</span> (the future Transvaal President), thereafter elected to deal
first with the perceived Zulu threat to the status quo, and local issues,
before directly opposing the British annexation. Kruger made two visits to
London for direct talks with the British government. In September 1878, on his
return from his second visit, Kruger met the British representatives, Sir <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Bartle
Frere</span> and Lieutenant General <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Frederic Thesiger</span>
(shortly to inherit the title of <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Lord
Chelmsford</span>), in <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Pietermaritzburg</span>. It had seemed an alliance against the natives might be sufficient to quell any lasting British-Dutch cultural division. Fortuitously on 22 January 1879 Anglo-Zulu conflict indeed escalated with the Zulu's strike upon the British, who lost more than 1,600 soldiers at the <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Battle of Isandlwana</span>. Shortly after the
main battle, a British outpost at <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Rorke's
Drift</span> on the Zululand-Natal border, withstood a second Zulu attack
with great losses to the Zulus this time as with the British fighting defensively in and
around the stone buildings of a small trading store which had been hastily
fortified. After reinforcements arrived the British won a series of skirmishes
and in time eventually conquered the Zulu capital at <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Ulundi</span>
on 4 July 1879. This war to all intents and purposes signaled the end of the
independent Zulu nation. The British consolidated their power over Natal, the
Zulu kingdom and the Transvaal in 1879 ending the <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Anglo-Zulu
War</span>.</div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>In the 1880s, <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Bechuanaland</span>
(present-day <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Botswana</span>,
located north of the Orange River), became the object of dispute between the
Germans to the west, the Boers to the east, and the British in the Cape Colony
to the south. Although Bechuanaland had at the time almost no economic value,
the "<span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Missionaries Road</span>"
passed through it toward territory farther north. After the Germans annexed <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Damaraland</span>
and <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Namaqualand</span>
(modern Namibia) in 1884, the British didn’t annex Bechuanaland until 1885. The
Transvaal Boer would following the Anglo-Zulu war attempt to berid themselves likewise
of the British dominion. Boers consequently following a police-dispute, ambushed
and destroyed a <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">British Army</span> <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">convoy</span>.
From 22 December 1880 to 6 January 1881, British army <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">garrisons</span>
all over the Transvaal became <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">besieged</span>. At the battle of Laing's Nek on 28
January 1881, the Natal Field Force under Major-General Sir George Pomeroy
Colley attempted with <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">cavalry</span> and <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">infantry</span>
attacks to break through the Boer positions on the Drakensberg mountain range
to relieve their garrisons. The British were repelled with heavy losses by the
Boers under the command of Piet Joubert. Of the 480 British troops who made the
charges, 150 never returned. Furthermore, sharpshooting Boers had killed or
wounded many senior officers. The Boer tactics proved overwhelming and in several battles which decimated the British forces outside of their
forts. </div>
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Hostilities continued until 6 March 1881, when a <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">truce</span> was
declared, the British agreed to complete Boer self-government in the Transvaal
under British <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">suzerainty</span>. The Boers accepted the Queen's
nominal rule and British control over external relations, African affairs and
native districts. The Pretoria Convention was signed on 3 August 1881 and
ratified on 25 October by the Transvaal <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Volksraad</span>
(parliament). This led to the withdrawal of the last British troops. The Pretoria
Convention was superseded in 1884 by the <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">London Convention</span> which
provided for similar complete self-government, although still with British
control of foreign relations. The transitional peace was of course doomed when
in 1886 a second major mineral find was made at an outcrop on a large ridge
some thirty miles south of the Boer capital at Pretoria, it reignited British
imperial interests. The ridge, known locally as the "<span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Witwatersrand</span>" (literally "white
water ridge"—a watershed), contained the world's largest deposit of
gold-bearing ore. Although it was not as rich as the gold finds in Canada and
Australia, its consistency made it especially well suited to industrial mining
methods. By 1899, tensions erupted into the <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Second
Boer War.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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On October 9, the Boer issued an ultimatum to the British
government, declaring that a state of war would exist between Britain and the
two Boer republics if the British did not remove their troops from along the
border. The ultimatum expired without resolution, and the war began on October
11, 1899. This time with sizable investment and the application of a notorious policy,
the British government would prevail. <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Lord Kitchener</span> applied ‘scorched-earth’
during the latter part of the <span style="mso-color-alt: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Second
Boer War</span> (1899–1902), to ensure military victory over the Boer’s guerrilla
warfare tactic, but only also after the capture of both Boer capital
cities. As a result, the British ordered destruction of the farms and the homes
of civilians, along with salting of the farming lands to prevent crop yields. In
cutting off the food supply for the Boer fighters, their wives and children
were also left without means to survive. As the Guerrillas were slowly captured for
exporting, the women and children were forcibly housed in concentration camps,
of which the size and scale grew quickly out of control. The humanitarian
measure, determined to care for displaced persons until the war was ended, eventuated
in catastrophe with an astonishing 27,927 innocent Boer deaths of which more
than 22,000 were under the age of 16. The failure of the Boer to accede in a
treaty and their tactical demise was nothing but a hoodwink surrounding colonial
domestication. Until the bitter end actually, such a frightening result saw
the Australian-British Lieutenant ‘Breaker’ Morant infamously executed,
after professing to follow senior orders, and in a rushed trial claimed oft as orchestrated
martyrdom. The future of South Africa remains contested of course and over the
transition of Europeans seeking liberties in life, and amid forced suffering. This
would only escalate as the State’s vigor for revolutionary vanguardism, which turned
toward attainment of the ultimate form of equality; a racial equality.</div>
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Jason Steven Jowetthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06299966996014985455noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5256145196336009922.post-17616249630390688112018-07-08T22:05:00.001-07:002019-11-01T09:30:55.289-07:00 The Assyrian Church: Kurdish, Ottomans & the Crimean War<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
The attribution of a divided essence of Christ with Mankind described as two-natures is attributed to Nestorius the arch-bishop of Constantinople. Condemned by the Council of Ephesus in 431, it became a popular methodology within the middle-east centered at Nisibis and with the Edessa School under the Sassanids originally. The Nestorians enjoyed protection later under Islamic code, and the Mongul conquests did little to change their status, despite outright devastation wraught by <a href="https://greatbrittania.blogspot.com/2019/07/kurdish-assyrian-turco-mongolian-timurid.html" target="_blank">Amir Timur</a>. By the 16th Century the Ottoman’s attained rule, and in the time the religion was contained by the Euphrates and Bohtan rivers, the Urumia lake of Persia, the Musul vilayet and Firat river. As classed within the millets, the Nestorian’s remained exclusive to other emergent Christianity until 1915, that mostly denominated by Imperialism within the western sphere of influence; before finally succumbing.<br />
<br />
Amid Ottoman instability of the 19th Century, expeditions instigated by the British and Foreign Bible Society triggered a serious political rift, initially evident in an ideological divide between American and British Missionaries. Governing the Hakkari province, Bedirhan Bey was descended from Saladin. Without fixed religious loyalties he would perceive the intervention as a Nestorian political issue rather than a religious amalgamation. He would respond with a strike on the Nestorians in 1840, absconding foreign missionary activities, which resigned to Urumia, Persia. Inadvertently however the Christian cause was interceded when the Nestorian patriarch left Kuchanis for the British board in Musul. <br />
<br />
The Bukhtis and Bajnawi Kurds had ruled the area surrounding Sinjar and Jazira mountains known under the name Zozan by Arab geographers. Yaqoot Hamawi describes their residing area to be from Ikhlat to Salmas which included many strongholds belonging to Bokhtis; he also mentioned town of Jardhakil as their capital. The Kurdistan culture is diverse from Iran, Iraq, Syria and Turkey is identified by national and ethnic multi-lingual communities with exclusive dance, music, food, art and anthropomorphic myths. Including Arabic, Armenian, Iranian and Turkish, the Kurdish dialects are Northern Kurmanji, Central Sorani, and Southern Sorani with the additions of Kermanshahi, Ardalani and Laki. Zaza and Gorani are also ethnic Kurdish but unclassified as such. Bedirhan Bey, 1803–1868, as the arbiter for a Holy war, was the last Kurdish emir and mutesellim of the Bohtan Emirate. An ethnic Kurd born in Cizre, his power was threatened following his actions against the Christian minority, of whom the American Mission perceived as a lost tribe, although having lived peaceful among both the Sunni and Shi’ite Muslim majorities across several states since shortly after the time of Jesus Christ. It wasn’t long before the Nestorian Christian’s were renamed as the Assyrian Church. <br />
<br />
Officially the regional conflict began when the centralist policies of the Ottoman Empire culminated in the Tanzimat Edict of 1839, as a wide scale reformation and modernisation instigated in response to foreign powers after the Empire’s significant depreciation particular to upper Mesopotamia. War broke out in the same year in Hakkari between Nurallah the governor of Bash Qal’a, and his nephew in Gullamerk. Splitting the region particularly the Assyrians, those including the Patriarch of the Church of the East (Nestorians), Shimun XVII Abraham supported Suleyman. A massacre soon eventuated when Nurallah struck Assyrian villages and the Patriarchate of Qodshanis in 1841, causing a irreparable rift between Christians and Kurds. The Kurds and Ottomans fought in summer 1842. In early 1843 Nurallah sent for a meeting with the Patriarch and the latter apologized using the weather, his religious duties, and the presence of a guest, the British missionary George Badger, as a pretense. It seemed that the Patriarch made his decision after being convinced by Badger to distrust the Kurds and to request assistance from the English or the Porte if the Kurds were to attack. Once Badger left, Nurallah renewed his alliance with the Badr Khan and Ismail Pasha, seeking to subjugate the Christians.<br />
<br />
According George Percy Badger's work with the Patriarch, he established that Nestorian doxology stated the Spirit proceeded from the Father,
as did all the Churches of the East, agreeably with the creed established by
the ecumenical councils culminated by Constantinople 381 AD. Concerning the declaration of the Spiritual
Procession, this was primary cause for trouble after the fifth Century. Regarded as obstinate
heterodoxy contrary to the practices of Communion, as Nicene Trinitarian
Christianity. Abjectly the Nestorian Patriach didn’t consider any right to
add Filoque to their ecumenical council, though appreciated the idea. The <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Filioque</span> meaning
‘and the Son’ was added to the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed by the Church of
Rome in the 11th century, reviving the Schism between East and West. The
inclusion in the Creedal article regarding the Holy Spirit states that the
Spirit proceeds from the Father <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">and the Son</span> as a non-linear digression. The inclusion
in the Creed was a violation of the Canonical law established by the Third
Ecumenical Council in 431, which forbade and anathematized any additions to the
Creed, a prohibition which was reiterated at the Eighth Ecumenical Council in
879-880. The schism still regards the equality of power or force of the spirit
as divided and if the holy spirit is equal from the father and the son, the
implications in secular authority. St. Photius the
Great, in his <i>On the Mystagogy of the Holy Spirit</i> describes it as a
heresy of Triadology. <br />
<br />
In July 1843 the Kurdish alliance, led by Badr Khan attacked the Nestorians in Hakkari, destroying their villages and killing many of them. Hormuzd Rassam tried using his influence with the Vali of Baghdad Najib Pasha to pressure Badr Khan for the release of prisoners which included close relatives of the Patriarch of the Assyrian Church (Nestorians), who had in the meantime taken refuge in Mosul. His attempts only led to the release of about 150, one of whom was the sister of the Patriarch, while the rest were distributed as war booty between Kurdish and Turkish Agha's and Mullahs. European powers instigated a response to a second massacre forcing the Ottomans to invade Bedirhan Bey’s territories, deporting Bedirhan Bey and ally Nurallah of Hakkari to Crete in 1850. But whence summoned to trial by the Grand Vizier Mustafa Resit Pasha on assurances of safety for him and his family, he responded to accusations of rebellion with a paradoxical retort in the rubias of Omer Hayyam; "What difference does it make between me and a bad act if you give a bad responce?" The Sultan approved and honored his word, Bedirhan would be succeeded by his 21 sons and 21 daughters in exile.<br />
<br />
More than 10,000 Assyrians perished during the massacres as Kurdish and later Ottoman incursions would bring an end to the semi-independent status which many Assyrian tribes enjoyed in the mountainous areas. The Ottoman intervention would indeed lead to complete control over the last semi-independent Kurdish Emirates and the eastern frontier by 1847. <br />
<br />
The Crimean War would culminate with the English declaring war on Persia in
1856. The Presbyterian Board
had based itself in Tebriz, Tehran, Hemdan and Rasht. The Anglicans
suffering from a failed mission, but later returning to Persia, all whilst the
Church Missionary Society had commenced in Esfahan, titled the ‘Mission
to Persia’. The Christian schools were first based in Van south eastern
Anatolia under W.A Wigram, where the schools for boys multiplied until
moving, along with the printing press, to Imadia to also include
Nestorians from Hakkari, as well as other Assyrian ‘Chaldeans’ and
‘Jacobites’ in the Euphrates valley. The complex dissolution between
Sunni and Shi’te Muslim communities was established hence where funding and
resources ‘from the west’ were strictly Christian solutions. While the churches worked out their differences and coming to an
agreement, Nicholas I of Russia and the French Emperor Napoleon III had absolved a deeper consternation in military occupation. Nicholas issued an ultimatum that the Orthodox
subjects of the Empire be placed under his protection. Britain attempted
to mediate and arranged a compromise that Nicholas agreed to. When the
Ottomans demanded changes, Nicholas refused and prepared for war. Having
obtained promises of support from France and Britain, the Ottomans
declared war on Russia in October 1853. When the Russians invaded
Azerbaijan, it’s 20,000 Nestorians converted to the Russian Orthodox
Church and attained protection from both Persian and Ottomans. Later
many of the order would join the Church of Rome, and wider still, the Lutherean’s,
all at large due to divesting missionary work by the French, and
Germans.<br />
<br />
As the actual first installments of the prolonged World War were under way, the Balkans were subsequently, in July 1853, occupied by Russian
troops along the Danubian Principalities (part of modern Romania),
which were under Ottoman suzerainty, who then began to cross the Danube. Led
by Omar Pasha, the Ottomans fought a strong defensive campaign and
stopped the advance at Silistra. A separate action on the fort town of
Kars in eastern Anatolia led to a siege, and a Turkish attempt to
reinforce the garrison was destroyed by a Russian fleet at Sinop.
Fearing an Ottoman collapse, France and Britain rushed forces to
Gallipoli. They then moved north to Varna in June 1854, arriving just in
time for the Russians to abandon Silistra. Aside from a minor skirmish
at Köstence (today Constanța), there was little for the allies to do.
In the day Karl Marx joked: "there they are, the French doing nothing and the
British helping them as fast as possible".<br />
<br />
<br />
<br /></div>
Jason Steven Jowetthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06299966996014985455noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5256145196336009922.post-68069883400287254052018-05-28T01:11:00.010-07:002023-04-01T05:42:48.913-07:00The Last Church of the Paraclete; the Jewish-Christian Baptists of Babylon<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEinfbquXhO583nAi5GPvGrnTcGXbaYXZbz0dzSZCH0HgK07AEBuea0iSV6pUqtDdn7JUAe3PeifMQfCYB02j_boamh6hXCIeNCKqmpMALYiOTfkNsIxpkUBRwutlmkF2Wv2hNf__SLx_MUohp6PvlprOXUYIo3Ion5aAlUvEZojuqWY_5MXSniB9wLm1g/s1024/Abu_Bakr.png" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1024" data-original-width="1024" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEinfbquXhO583nAi5GPvGrnTcGXbaYXZbz0dzSZCH0HgK07AEBuea0iSV6pUqtDdn7JUAe3PeifMQfCYB02j_boamh6hXCIeNCKqmpMALYiOTfkNsIxpkUBRwutlmkF2Wv2hNf__SLx_MUohp6PvlprOXUYIo3Ion5aAlUvEZojuqWY_5MXSniB9wLm1g/w200-h200/Abu_Bakr.png" width="200" /></a></div>
By the second half of 6th century, Chaghanian had become one of the strongest and most influential possessions of Northern Tokharistan. Local rulers – Chaghankhudates had established diplomatic, dynastic and religious ties with many states. Chaghanian was soon drawn into the Muslim sphere of influence but due to flexible State policies, maintained a concentrated power for near one hundred years more, so consequently abolished by Islamic powers in the last quarter of 8th century. Islam whence directed from Medina by Mohammed’s first successor Abu Bakr (632–34), had launched its series of conquests, and under the second caliph Umar (634–44), taking Syria, Egypt, Iraq, and Persia furthermore.</div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /></div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgXA2eYxVh3FANYqEztyFbBK28e2GWnL1vqeSlUTw2t_m6sn4GjYtv7h8xfxNrXo5tClCM3k2EBYTIhOWdzmmD02OUa4-lG8am-_2UeT-zgctEnUuPBafVpCVTY49I-wPXyH40c854lQ4eH-SiJ6XD7lqZFzLciTjQDIlZrtGlZkL0F37VlYsQk8UXREw/s1456/Kudomos_assembly_of_scions_of_western_Turkic_dynasties_44818b50-5cd7-4df7-9913-41b51dfc88ca.png" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="816" data-original-width="1456" height="179" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgXA2eYxVh3FANYqEztyFbBK28e2GWnL1vqeSlUTw2t_m6sn4GjYtv7h8xfxNrXo5tClCM3k2EBYTIhOWdzmmD02OUa4-lG8am-_2UeT-zgctEnUuPBafVpCVTY49I-wPXyH40c854lQ4eH-SiJ6XD7lqZFzLciTjQDIlZrtGlZkL0F37VlYsQk8UXREw/s320/Kudomos_assembly_of_scions_of_western_Turkic_dynasties_44818b50-5cd7-4df7-9913-41b51dfc88ca.png" width="320" /></a></div>
It’s said by the time of the rise of Islam in the 7th Century, and from a singular major power centre, most rulers of Tokharistan (part of Kushan 1st-4th C., Hephthlites 4th-6th C., & Turkic Kaganate 6th-7th) were scions of western Turkic dynasties. The conquests of the Ptolemaic, Selucid, and Parthian Empires had originally beset the regions extremely prosperous ‘Bactrian empire’ - of one thousand cities. The Greeks of Bactria were described as masters of the whole of Afghanistan, as well as the easternmost part of Iran and most of Pakistan. </div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /></div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvwwaKJ0zYjisWWGR12ScnLXZdL_iftcMRSGSVAl3QgD2oFygUCtezIs8SPsIpoTRs5i_2FdZMbZCNSFAmhz6GGOvNBTSKEYrUQSgg3-fI8ihAA04zKYykPl_H0b_sKu386Vk8UyfHXYJq7sqdH7FvBUpznAxHT66_uua-Z4JpGidhJz07tjR8Fnpntg/s1456/Kudomos_practices_of_fire_worship_in_Kurasan_7bf01c43-9d0d-4c2c-8c41-821628f3aa53.png" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="816" data-original-width="1456" height="201" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvwwaKJ0zYjisWWGR12ScnLXZdL_iftcMRSGSVAl3QgD2oFygUCtezIs8SPsIpoTRs5i_2FdZMbZCNSFAmhz6GGOvNBTSKEYrUQSgg3-fI8ihAA04zKYykPl_H0b_sKu386Vk8UyfHXYJq7sqdH7FvBUpznAxHT66_uua-Z4JpGidhJz07tjR8Fnpntg/w360-h201/Kudomos_practices_of_fire_worship_in_Kurasan_7bf01c43-9d0d-4c2c-8c41-821628f3aa53.png" width="360" /></a></div>Apollodorus of Artemita recounted that more tribes were subdued by them than by Alexander, indeed the later Moghuls under Babur succeeded where he failed, in taking control over the Indian subcontinent. The regions <a href="https://greatbrittania.blogspot.com/2021/04/zoroaster-throne-of-solomon_16.html" target="_blank">Zoroastrian’s</a> based in Khurasan for over one thousand years, practiced fire worship with special burial customs, and respectfully aside any other cults, as the official cult of the Sasanian dynasty of Iran. The culturally exclusive Tokharistan had been maintained as part of the eastern group of Indo-European languages called satem. Tokharian, the language spoken in the Eastern part of Sinkiang, was Indo-European, but pertained to the kentum or western branch of this linguistic family (like Italo-Keltic and Germanic). Both the Iranian and Tokharian groups are familiar to the three other major regional lingual sets: Turkic, Sino-Tibetan, and Indian.</div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /></div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjsfK9bK-w-fQoDPzmewzaAMuGno-D8yCt0NlJvGVfwLC1qOyBQysm5fyA0sanQYZQxH2Wp0s3xo8Co0lMEcIi6Mqsto-FwA4p_sROP3t09_vuIsGFEm1TU3YNE54T1w4XQ5gums3fIs-d1xhv-aGgGO75zW-vHL4qP_rVmeQDixhfd0yHdjuYPBA22EQ/s1024/Prophett%20Mani.png" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1024" data-original-width="1024" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjsfK9bK-w-fQoDPzmewzaAMuGno-D8yCt0NlJvGVfwLC1qOyBQysm5fyA0sanQYZQxH2Wp0s3xo8Co0lMEcIi6Mqsto-FwA4p_sROP3t09_vuIsGFEm1TU3YNE54T1w4XQ5gums3fIs-d1xhv-aGgGO75zW-vHL4qP_rVmeQDixhfd0yHdjuYPBA22EQ/s320/Prophett%20Mani.png" width="320" /></a></div>
The Zoroastrianism religion central in Iran ceded its primacy to other faiths, especially Manichaeism in Transoxania (Modern Uzbekistan) and Buddhism in Sinkiang. Manichaeism was another dualistic religion founded by Mani (216–77) in Iraq, then a Persian possession, but subsequently all but extirpated in territories under Persian or Byzantine rule. The Prophet Mani, ‘Messenger of Light’, spoke the Semitic tongue related to Syriac, a later form of Aramaic. Transoxania and Sinkiang became the split-centre of Manichaeism, instilling foundational reforms with its Syriac alphabet, also adapted by the Sogdians later and becoming the Arabic script, crucially also Mongolian. To designate themselves, Egyptian and other Manichaeans preferred ‘church’ ( ἐκκλησία ), since they regarded their communities as veritable assemblies ( ἐκκλησίαι ) of saints. References to their church abound in Manichaean writings from all over the Roman Empire. Similarly as modern Christianity denotes, Mani’s followers identified as members of the holy church, children of the living kindred and children of God, as common epistolography. They promoted themselves collectively as the Church of the Paraclete and as such were described the Christians in the Dakhleh Oasis in Western Egypt (evidence discovered at the town site at Kellis proves the earliest known Christian liturgy is and a large fragment from the Acts of St. John found there; set by three small Kellis churches), where multi-faith communities were integral to the historical polytheist tradition.</div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /></div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmQi7xBcPE4b4vrWB0NIX0hOXIt81akqvIag_VXUNeTo36551XAI852SASIQ5s6AbjvF3zTjr_psfIHExU7yZrbPjT-FDIaRbtZ_x6k9618nswU6JVg_PdQ28ptycBk7Icqajs6jf2FUdH_7X5UM4mSuL_GWbv5zM-HD3RHRjG1UNvFIlgX_UU4rUEEg/s1024/sahara%20church.png" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1024" data-original-width="1024" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmQi7xBcPE4b4vrWB0NIX0hOXIt81akqvIag_VXUNeTo36551XAI852SASIQ5s6AbjvF3zTjr_psfIHExU7yZrbPjT-FDIaRbtZ_x6k9618nswU6JVg_PdQ28ptycBk7Icqajs6jf2FUdH_7X5UM4mSuL_GWbv5zM-HD3RHRjG1UNvFIlgX_UU4rUEEg/s320/sahara%20church.png" width="320" /></a></div>
Mani recounted that “Jesus chose his church in the west, but his church did not reach the east. Buddha chose his church in the east, and his choice did not reach the west”. Seeking to ensure his Church remain absolute and the figurative ‘last Church’, Mani stated;<br />
“I arranged for my hope so that it reaches the west and is also carried to the east, and the sound of its preaching will be heard in every language and proclaimed in every town.” Successful by and by with Manichaean communities reaching as far as southern China, he was however ultimately not received by subsequent authorities of the State though after attaining permission to propagate his new syncretistic religion, within Shapur’s entourage (comitatus). Mani was imprisoned and executed, further galvanising his doctrine and becoming identified as Christ, though an acclaimed apostle to Jesus Christ. Having descended from the Baptismal traditions, the associative sects and coupled with Gnostic Christianity and Jewish Christianity, each forebode particular practice, virtues, prophets and writings, oft the cause of civil disturbance and escalating to heresy. </div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /></div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisJcAHJzEzyL617yhrbYsA_q6s9bkkeiLXuH-j0H1r2k3M-AqCtSTxGL4z1zYX1gH1zPgTHSRU5s4L4-zHXatd4xUvvTST7-I4ruTdHBsRZ2rFgoNw1Z5QjPKPrgdjqoICmGr2OhFpdbMMY7etmgpz8xVMVV6KAPZ01yPZhgGGWdrmQOGDcdo1gVwYEw/s1456/Nicene%20Council.png" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="816" data-original-width="1456" height="369" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisJcAHJzEzyL617yhrbYsA_q6s9bkkeiLXuH-j0H1r2k3M-AqCtSTxGL4z1zYX1gH1zPgTHSRU5s4L4-zHXatd4xUvvTST7-I4ruTdHBsRZ2rFgoNw1Z5QjPKPrgdjqoICmGr2OhFpdbMMY7etmgpz8xVMVV6KAPZ01yPZhgGGWdrmQOGDcdo1gVwYEw/w659-h369/Nicene%20Council.png" width="659" /></a></div>In Rome this had invoked official anti-Christian legislation by Diocletian, eventually resulting in Constantine’s <a href="http://greatbrittania.blogspot.com.au/2018/01/rome-tetrarchy-nicene-council-orthodox.html">Nicene council</a>. </div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /></div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">Mani uniquely had criticised the baptismal rituals after departing from the tradition in youth. He kept instead honor of the Sassanid Prophet Alchasaios with whom we identify with the Elcesaites. Such Jewish-Christian Baptists were known to have adapted the Kabbalah doctrines into ecclesial ritual, described in their revered book of Elchasai. Epiphanius of Salamis found the book in use among the Sampsæans, their descendants, and also among the Ossæns and many other Ebionite communities. Epiphanius accounted for the books strict code such as for Prayer, regarding congregation, the tabernacle, and Jerusalem, this and modern practices remain still in concerned differentiation of directives.<br /><br /></div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Sources:</div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
A History of Inner Asia ‘Soucek, Svatopluk’ 2000. Manichaeism and Its Legacy 'Coyle, J. Kevin' 2009. <i>Art by Midjourney</i>.</div><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /></div>
Jason Steven Jowetthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06299966996014985455noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5256145196336009922.post-27749141659613623412018-01-10T04:24:00.005-08:002023-03-23T16:25:52.423-07:00Rome: Tetrarchy, the Nicene Council, & Orthodox Church<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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By 268, the Roman empire had split into three competing states: the Gallic Empire, including the Roman provinces of Gaul, Britannia and (briefly) Hispania; the Palmyrene Empire, including the eastern provinces of Syria Palaestina and Aegyptus; and the Italian-centered and independent Roman Empire, proper, between them. The situation of the Roman Empire had become dire in 235 AD, when emperor Severus Alexander was murdered by his own troops. By Roman Emperor Diocletian's claim to power in 293, the Crisis of the Third Century ended in recovery of the Roman Empire. After the deaths of Emperor Carus and his son Numerian on campaign in Persia, Diocletian, Carus’s Cavarly Commander, was proclaimed emperor. The title was also claimed by Carus' other surviving son, Carinus, who Diocletian defeated at the Battle of the Margus. </div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-family: Georgia; font-size: 14px; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNVqlT00uokp1mD1DxLq4ZZqYQoHo0WtfIZw1aPojjzBY7k6Jb68OjjcJMAEedpx-_-VH68zhYPQe_TeAP9_hKWKdth5tIwjeeSEHEuun6VW_gB1JCsTIBcJ6LEfjXT2bAcEmgvJde-tFVB8Js0eCvV506hhQnFU01uscJRqlg6O17ULX6uLtbtzaSNA/s1456/Kudomos_photo_realistic_Emperor_Constantines_Nicene_council.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="816" data-original-width="1456" height="403" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNVqlT00uokp1mD1DxLq4ZZqYQoHo0WtfIZw1aPojjzBY7k6Jb68OjjcJMAEedpx-_-VH68zhYPQe_TeAP9_hKWKdth5tIwjeeSEHEuun6VW_gB1JCsTIBcJ6LEfjXT2bAcEmgvJde-tFVB8Js0eCvV506hhQnFU01uscJRqlg6O17ULX6uLtbtzaSNA/w721-h403/Kudomos_photo_realistic_Emperor_Constantines_Nicene_council.png" width="721" /></a></div><br />
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The right of succession became a prevailing issue for Diocletian, whilst Rome was beset by continuous civil wars as competing factions in the military, senate, and other parties, all who put forward their favoured candidate for emperor. His priority reform was the empire's civil and military services and he reorganized the empire's provincial divisions. The Diocletianic Persecution (303–11) commenced in turn, as was the empire's last, largest, and bloodiest official persecution of Christianity, failing by design to eliminate Christianity. Diocletian’s four tetrarchs were successful in his time, as based themselves not at Rome but in other cities closer to the frontiers, it was mainly intended as headquarters for the defense of the empire at the borders. These centres were known as the tetrarchic capitals. Maintained by the Prefect of the City (praefectus urbis), a tradition founded by Romulus himself. Originally called the custos urbis (guardian of the city) the title meant to serve as the king’s chief lieutenant. Appointed by the king to serve for life, the custos urbis served concurrently as the Princeps Senatus. As the second highest office of state, the custos urbis was the king’s personal representative. In the absence of the king from the city, the custos urbis exercised all of his powers, which included the powers of convoking the Senate, the popular assemblies and the exercise of force in the event of an emergency. However, the imperium he possessed was only valid within the walls of Rome.<br />
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When the first Roman Emperor, Augustus (reigned 27 BC – 14 AD), transformed the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire in 27 BC, he reformed the office of Prefect at the suggestion of his minister and friend Maecenas. Again elevated into a magistracy, Augustus granted the praefectus urbi all the powers needed to maintain order within the city but even more so, to the ports of Ostia and the Portus Romanus, as well as a zone of one hundred Roman miles (c. 140 km) around the city. The Prefect was superintendent of all guilds and corporations (collegia), and held responsibility (via the praefectus annonae) for the city's welfare system.<br />A Prefect maintained direct authority through the cohortes urbanae, Rome’s police force (within independent prefecture - vigiles, praefectus vigilum). The Prefect needfully published the laws promulgated by the Emperor. Gradually, the judicial powers of the Prefect expanded. Eventually there was no appealing the Prefect’s sentencing, except to the Roman Emperor a reach over even all the governors of the Roman provinces. Originally the Prefect’s powers were exercised in conjunction with those of the quaestors, but by the 3rd century, the Prefect’s control was total.<br />
In late Antiquity, the office of the Prefect gained freedom from the emperor's direct supervision as the Imperial court was removed from the city. The office was usually held by leading members of Italy's senatorial aristocracy, who remained largely pagan even after Emperor Constantine's conversion to Christianity. Over the following thirty years, Christian holders were few. In such a capacity, Quintus Aurelius Symmachus played a prominent role in the controversy over the Altar of Victory in the late 4th century.<br />
The urban prefecture survived the fall of the Western Roman Empire, and remained active under the Ostrogothic Kingdom and well after the Byzantine reconquest.<br />
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Each of the tetrarchs themselves often were at work within the province or eparchy, while delegating most of the administration to the hierarchic bureaucracy headed by his respective Pretorian Prefect, each supervising several Vicarii, the governor-generals in charge of the civil diocese. The four tetrarchic capitals of the time were <b>Nicomedia</b> in northwestern Asia Minor (modern Izmit in Turkey), a base for defence against invasion from the Balkans and Persia's Sassanids. <b>Sirmium</b> (modern Sremska Mitrovica in the Vojvodina region of modern Serbia, and near Belgrade, on the Danube border) was the capital of Galerius, the eastern Caesar; this was to become the Balkans-Danube prefecture Illyricum. <b>Mediolanum</b> (modern Milan, near the Alps) was the capital of Maximian, the western Augustus; his domain became "Italia et Africa", with only a short exterior border. Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier, in Germany) was the capital of Constantius Chlorus, the western Caesar, near the strategic Rhine border; it had been the capital of Gallic emperor Tetricus I. This quarter became the prefecture <b>Galliae</b>.<br />
The tetrarchy lasted until c. 313, when internecine conflict eliminated most of the claimants to power, leaving Constantine in control of the Western half of the empire, and Licinius in control of the East.<br />
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Orthodox Nicene Christianity would become the essential to securitise central control at the capital, becoming the official State church of the Roman Empire under Constantine. On taking the Imperial office in 306, Constantine I restored Christians to full legal equality and returned property that had been confiscated during the persecution. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre was built ultimately on Constantine I’s orders at the purported site of Jesus' tomb in Jerusalem and became the holiest place in Christendom, and he is venerated naturally as a Saint. Constantine the son of Constantius I had of course traveled through Palestine at the right hand of Diocletian, and was present at the palace in Nicomedia in 303 and 305. Most notably during Constantine's tenure, he had the Old Saint Peter's Basilica built.</span><br />
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In 325, Constantine I convened the Council of Nicea, effectively the first Ecumenical Council (unless the Council of Jerusalem is so classified). The creed established and affirmed the doctrine that Jesus, the Son, was equal to God the Father, one with the Father, and of the same substance, or co-essential (homoousios in Greek). The Council condemned the teachings of Arius who they </span>declared a heretic, for believing Jesus to be inferior to the Father.<br />
While the Nicene council paved the way for the homoousian doctrine, there remained many closer to the Arian school who attempted to bypass the Christological debate by saying that Jesus was merely like (homoios in Greek) God the father, without speaking of substance (ousia). These non-Nicenes were frequently labeled as Arians (followers of Arius). Arius objected to Alexander's (the bishop of the time) apparent carelessness in blurring the distinction of nature between the Father and the Son by his emphasis on eternal generation. Alexander accused Arius of denying the divinity of the Son and also of being too 'Jewish' and 'Greek' in his thought. Both Arius and Alexander agreed only on rejecting Gnosticism, Manichaeism and Sabellian formulae. The Nicene Creed was created thus as a result of the extensive adoption of the doctrine of Arius far outside Alexandria, in order to clarify the key tenets of the Christian faith.</div>
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The Emperor Valens had favoured the group who used the homoios formula; this theology was prominent in much of the East and had under Constantius II gained a foothold in the West. Theodosius would however issue the Nicene Creed which was the interpretation that predominated in the West and was held by the important Alexandrian church. The differentiation was proof and the distinction of orthodox Christianity as Catholicism was mandated hence in ritualistic succession from Judaism. <br />
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Starting on 27 February 380, together with Gratian and Valentinian II, Theodosius issued the decree "Cunctos populos", the so-called "Edict of Thessalonica", recorded in the Codex Theodosianus xvi.1.2. This declared the Nicene Trinitarian Christianity to be the only legitimate imperial religion and the only one entitled to call itself Catholic. Other Christians he described as 'foolish madmen' and terminated official state support for them along with all traditional polytheist religions, practices and customs.<br />
On 26 November 380 Theodosius expelled the non-Nicene bishop, Demophilus of Constantinople, and appointed Meletius patriarch of Antioch, and Gregory of Nazianzus, one of the Cappadocian Fathers as patriarch of Constantinople. In May 381, Theodosius summoned a new ecumenical council at Constantinople to repair the schism between East and West on the basis of Nicene orthodoxy. The council went on to define orthodoxy, including the mysterious Third Person of the Trinity, the Holy Spirit, who, though equal to the Father, 'proceeded' from Him, whereas the Son was 'begotten' of Him. The council also condemned the Apollonarian and Macedonian heresies. From 389–392 the emperor promulgated the ‘Theodosian decrees’, instituting the ascendance of Catholic Church offices, and abolishing the last remaining expressions of prominent non-Nicene Christianity with the pagan Roman religions (making the holy days into workdays).
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Jason Steven Jowetthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06299966996014985455noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5256145196336009922.post-45374971290970717512017-12-12T15:33:00.002-08:002020-10-17T21:30:13.693-07:00Francia Part 2: Charlemagne & the Papacy<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Western Europe after the Carolingian’s ascension was a complex multi-culturalist society where unified rule was impossible before the polyglot communities. Whilst the reign of fear associated with military based rule had previously served to bind even those of different creed, it’s suppression was now the uniting force by still warrior chiefs, but apostolic transitional authority. This transactional value to state power would become popular, assuring bureaucracy based accord instead of military, where succession and transition is exposed. Intellectual and artistic stirrings throughout Latin Christendom would achieve reestablishment of contact with the classical and patristic past thereby; a crucial requirement in renewal and continuity in Christian society. The power divide traditionally inciting war was mortally bound thus, with the divine right bestowed upon the Carlolingian dynasty and security assured in return for the Papacy under Frankish protection. A diarchy had proved the strongest and safest means of control hereby, exercised between brothers such as Pepin and Carloman, dual rulers of France. Having continued their father Charles Martel’s work by supporting Saint Boniface, reforming the Frankish church, and evangelising the Saxons. In their earliest years in power in the Kingdom of France, Pepin III ruled in Neustria, Burgundy, and Provence, while the elder Carloman ruled Austrasia, Alemannia and Thuringia. Both were active in suppressing revolts led by the Bavarians, Aquitanians, Saxons, and the Alemanni. Pepin soon enough assumed total rule of France, and quelled his own half-brother Grifo's attempt to usurp power twice, along with Carloman's son, Drogo. When Pepin's son Charlemagne would assume power, it was after an undefeated reign.<br />
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The most illustrious ruler of the middle ages, Charlemagne (2 April 742 – 28 January 814) was crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day at Rome's Old Street, Peter's Basilica. During a more tedious power struggle with his brother than Pepin his father endured, Charlemagne sort marriage with King Desiderius’s daughter (of the Lombard’s), to affix power in furthering peace for the Papacy’s territory. Though this was against the mandate of Pope Stephan III, as Charles was already married to Himiltrude. Pepin’s previous grant to the Papacy of the territory of central Italy, was in jeopardy however still, and due to the eastern powers centred in Constantinople. When Charlemagne’s father, Pepin had welcomed Pope Stephan to the Carolingian Royal Palace at Ponthion in 754, Pepin had acted to restore Papal lands taken by Aistulf in central Italy. Aistulf, the military ruler of the Lomabards had seized the imperial capital of Ravenna from the Papacy. In 755 and 756 Pepin, Charlemagne’s father entered Italy to vindicate Pope Stephan, and defeated Aistulf in the Alps, after an attempted siege on Rome. A mandate for peace was attained after Frankish forces pursued Aistulf’s army to and plundered his land around Pavia. Yet Aistulf proved ever troublesome continuing to taunt the Papacy with a second attempt on Rome also quelled again by the Franks in 756. The keys to a number of cities and territories in central Italy that had submitted to Papal authority were collected duly with the list of the cities involved, as described in the Confession of St. Peter.<br />
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Charlemagne’s primary military activity against the Saxons would compel him for 30 years, after which achieving the annexation of a large block of territory between the Rhine and the Elbe rivers. The period is stained by pillaging, broken truces, hostage taking, mass killings, deportation of rebellious Saxons, draconian measures to compel acceptance of Christianity, and occasional Frankish defeats. The Frisians, Saxon allies living along the North Sea east of the Rhine, were also forced into submission in turn. During this time Charlemagne attained sole authority over the Franks, with the death of his own brother and co-ruler of Francia, Carloman. The authority of the Holy See, in according Monarchy, and Ducal powers was contested however and crisis ensued after the death of Pope Paul I in 767. Desiderius had seized a priest named Philip from the Monastery of St. Vitus on the Esquiline Hill in Rome on Sunday, July 31, 768, and summarily appointed him Pope. This Antipope Philip was never recognised nor gained a significant following, thus returning to the monastery where he was never heard from or seen again, leaving the Papacy to appoint Pope Adrian I without contestation.<br />
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Afterwards (See Chronology of Carloman I) Charlemagne repudiated his wife and King Desiderius’s daughter, and married a beautiful Swabian. Furious, Desiderius's Lombard’s again marched on Rome after attacking Pope Adrian first and invading the Pentapolis. The embassies of Adrian and Desiderius met at Thionville and Charlemagne favoured the Pope; marching on the Lombard capital of Ticinum with his full Frankish force. Desiderius' son Adelchis was raising an army at Verona meanwhile, but the young prince fled to Constantinople to escape Charlemagne. The siege on Pavia was absolved when, in return for the lives of his soldiers and subjects, Desiderius surrendered and opened the gates, henceforth sent to exile at Corbie Abbey. On entry to Rome, Charlemagne had, and after a series of consolidated campaigns such as against the Lombard duchy of Benevento in southern Italy; defined the territory of Italy. Installing his second son to wife Hildegard, King Pippin from 781–810. Pippin would in turn vitally securitise relations with the Byzantines.<br />
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Charlemagne’s relations with the papacy, especially with Pope Adrian I, were good and brought him valuable support for his religious program and praise for his qualities as a Christian leader. The expanded Frankish presence in Italy and the Balkans intensified diplomatic encounters with the Eastern emperors, which strengthened the Frankish position with respect to the Eastern Roman Empire, weakened by internal dissension and threats by Muslims and Bulgars on its eastern and northern frontiers. Charlemagne also established friendly relations with the ʿAbbāsid caliph in Baghdad (Hārūn al-Rashīd), the Anglo-Saxon kings of Mercia and Northumbria, and the ruler of the Christian kingdom of Asturias in northwestern Spain. Charlemagne obtained the role as protector of Jerusalem furthermore. The Eastern Orthodox Church however would come to consider Charlemagne a heterodox for supporting the filioque (concerns generational advance of the Holy Spirit). Their disdain likewise was in recognition by the Bishop of Rome as a legitimate Roman Emperor, rather than the ‘basilissa’, Irene of Athens of the Eastern Roman Empire. These and more machinations led to the split of Rome and Constantinople in the Great Schism of 1054.
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Jason Steven Jowetthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06299966996014985455noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5256145196336009922.post-25051785888205502852017-11-18T22:35:00.002-08:002020-02-21T05:02:47.790-08:00Anglo-Chinese; the Opium Wars & the Taiping Rebellion <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
When the Dutch first brought a small amount of Chinese black tea into Europe in 1640, it was 150 years before the trade peaked in Britain, averaging 26 million pounds of tea annually with an import duty tax of 100%. The wealth established by the East India Trading company under Major-General Robert Clive, was dependent on participation with the Qing. A disaster ensued hence after the Macartney Mission to China failed to attain a free trade agreement in 1793, and following the Amherst Mission in 1816 the British representatives to the Monarch of England succeeded to greatly offend the Chinese. The wanton demand for silk, porcelain, and tea from China throughout the Indian-British-Chinese trade-exchange would be the cause for war between East and West, thereafter manifest over the legalization of Opium. Where the Chinese tributary system was in authority respected under the divinity of rulers, and the honor based system of exchange maintained a cultural prerogative, the division over oriental east and west was beset in Canton’s bed of nails. With evidence of China’s stockpiling of currency at the time and charges of counterfeit currency production en mass, the single Canton trading port system executed by the Cohong remains a contentious topic and distinct moral wedge between western market-liberalism and mercantilism.<br />
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In 1839 the Daoguang Emperor, rejecting proposals to legalize and tax opium, appointed viceroy Lin Zexu who confiscated 20,000 chests of opium (approximately 1210 tons or 2.66 million pounds) and without offering compensation blockaded foreign trade in Canton. The British responded with a strike on the Chinese fleet, devastating them with superior naval power. Commencing in late June 1840 the first part of the expeditionary force arrived in China aboard 15 barrack-ships, four steam-powered gunboats and 25 smaller boats that reached the mouth of the Pearl River under the command of Commodore Bremer. Britain gained greatly as a result, claiming Hong Kong, and five open ports for trade. The power struggle continued, fueled by the pursuit of liberalization, when John Bowring was appointed British consul at Canton (today's Guangzhou). Bowring had an impressive array of credentials: honorary diplomas from universities in Holland and Italy, fellowships of the Linnaean Society of London and Paris, the Historical Institute of the Scandinavian and Icelandic Societies, the Royal Institute of the Netherlands, the Royal Society of Hungary, the Royal Society of Copenhagen, and of the Frisian and Athenian Societies. As superintendent of trade in China, he would see to the full implementation of the Nanking Treaty across another flare up of the Opium War for which he was largely blamed. Bowring would pay dearly for his administration, all occurring amid one of the bloodiest wars in human history, the undisputed bloodiest civil war and the largest conflict of the 1800’s, with casualties estimated conservatively between 20–70 million and peaking at 100 million, with millions more displaced.<br />
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Hostilities had began on January 1, 1851, when the Qing Green Standard Army (ethnic Han soldiers operating concurrently with the Manchu-Mongol-Han Eight Banner armies) launched an attack against the God Worshipping Society at the town of Jintian, Guangxi. Their leader Hong, had declared himself the Heavenly King of the Heavenly Kingdom of Peace (or Taiping Heavenly Kingdom “Taipings”). The Taipings escaped by marching north in September 1851 and on March 19, 1853, they captured the city of Nanjing where Hong declared his capital. A local irregular army called the Xiang Army, under the personal leadership of Zeng Guofan, became the main armed force fighting for the Qing against the Taiping. In 1856 the Taipings were weakened after infighting following an attempted coup led by the East King, Yang Xiuqing. During this time the Xiang Army managed to gradually retake much of Hubei and Jiangxi province. In May 1860 the Taiping defeated the imperial forces that had been besieging Nanjing since 1853, eliminating them from the region and opening the way for a successful invasion of southern Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces, the wealthiest region of the Qing Empire. The Taiping rebels attempted to capture Shanghai in 1860, but the Qing’s government forces were aided by Western officers. Whilst the Taiping were preoccupied in Jiangsu, Zeng's forces followed the Yangzi River to capture Anqing on September 5, 1861.<br />
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After the prolonged siege and cut supply chain Hong died on June 1, 1864, with Nanjing falling 18 days later. Afterwards a small remainder of loyal Taiping forces continued to fight in northern Zhejiang, rallying behind Hong's teenage son Tianguifu, but after Tianguifu's capture on October 25, 1864, Taiping resistance was gradually pushed into the highlands of Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Fujian and finally Guangdong, where the last Taiping loyalist, Wang Haiyang, was defeated on January 29, 1866.
Hong’s sect as a God worshiping society had originally sanctified the ‘Good Words to Admonish the Age’ by the Chinese preacher Liang Fa. Hong preached a mixture of communal Utopian, Evangelism, and Christianity and under their auspices' he forbid Opium consumption, proclaimed sexual equality, segregated men and women, all whilst encouraging his followers to pay their assets into the communal treasury. Hong had originally struggled with the Imperial examination, and whilst in a delirious state dreamt that he visited Heaven discovering his celestial family was distinct from his earthly family, and included a heavenly father, mother, elder brother, sister-in-law, wife, and son. Although of difference to the Confucian order of benign juxtaposition which he attempted to purge, his standard was to accept the certain measure of parallax, in heaven and earthly domains. In tradition to Taoism which has often been the Chinese state religion, itself was based on the indigenous religion of Bon shamanism and the authoritarian standard to application of medical process according metaphysical sense (Astrology, Feng Shui, and Martial Arts all incorporate this divinatory process).
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Sir John Bowring became Governor of Hong Kong and was instrumental to the formation in 1855 of the Board of Inspectors established under the Qing Customs House, operated by the British to gather statistics on trade on behalf of the Qing government and, later, as the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs Service, to collect all customs duties. This vital reform brought an end to the corruption of government officials leading to the modernization of China's international trade. Having concerns for the welfare of Chinese laborers ‘coolies’, who were being exported to Australia, California, Cuba and the West Indies, and in witness to the coolie revolt in Amoy, May 1852; Bowring tightened enforcement of the Passenger Act so as to improve coolie transportation conditions and ensure their voluntarism. He legislated for Chinese citizens in Hong Kong to serve as jurors in trials and become lawyers additionally. Among several further reformations to the city he succeeded to abolish monopolies and established the first ever bilingual English-Chinese law, "An Ordinance for licensing and regulating the sale of prepared opium" (Ordinance No. 2 of 1858).<br />
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In October 1856, a dispute broke out with the Canton vice-consul Ye over the Chinese crew of a small British-flagged trading vessel, the Arrow. Bowring saw the argument as an opportunity to wring from the Chinese the free access to Canton which had been promised in the Treaty of Nanking but so far denied. With the French joining the fight, 80 treaty ports were soon established in China, involving many foreign powers, who were granted rights to travel within China. A Qing-sponsored campaign of civil disruption however eventually succeeded to destabilize the British administration with an arsenic attack. The poisoning of 15 January 1857 in which 10 pounds of arsenic was mixed in the flour of the colony's principal bakery, poisoned hundreds, and killed Bowring's wife, debilitating him for at least a year. After being subject to scandal and criminal libel against the editor of the Daily Press, Yorick J Murrow, Bowring’s day’s in Hong Kong were numbered. Taking up the role of commissioner to Italy in 1861, and subsequently the appointment of minister plenipotentiary and envoy extraordinary from the Hawaiian government to the courts of Europe, Sir Bowring would go on to negotiate treaties with Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain and Switzerland, all in addition to the title of Siam’s ambassador to the courts of Europe.</div>
Jason Steven Jowetthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06299966996014985455noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5256145196336009922.post-67800234866743904702017-11-13T03:11:00.001-08:002020-10-17T21:29:19.773-07:00Islamic Politics and Religion (academic)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
The holy wars engaged by Mohammed sought to expand territory, whilst not subsuming existing tribal religions under monotheism, rather capitalising on them with tax. Those thus considered heretics by others were obliged to peaceful surrender to Jihad, for concessions of liberty & security (historically Christians of Syria and Egypt, reaching from Spain to Pakistan were hence attracted to Islam). Slowly the degenerates would convert from these existing societies too, enriching Islamic credence with worker rights. Islam wasn’t immune to foreign influence however, and the Shi’is gained more influence than Sunni’s; from Iranians, Christians, Jewish, and Manichaean providences.
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The third generation after Mohammed saw massive conflict between Hossain and Hasan, who slaughtered his (martyred) brother and followers under orders of Umayyad caliph Yazid in 680. One of Hossain’s son’s survived however maintaining the Shi’i leadership (hence regarded infallible). Extremist policy then thus attributed to Sh’ites were incarnation, transmigration, and messianism, including the prophecy of the Mahdi “rightly guided one”. By rule of the Abbasids 749-1256, three divisions of Shi’ism became the Zaaidis or ‘fivers’, more similar to Sunni’s who don’t maintain infallibility of Imams. The seveners and twelvers are split on succession of the sixth Imam. Key to the rise of certain groups of the Seveners ‘Isma’ilis’ was assassination, and maintaining relative state communism; they, founding the Fatimid caliphate, which conquered Eqypt in 969, and took opposition in might to the Abbasids. The twelvers ‘Imamis’, alternatively conspired upon the Madhi’s prophecy to gain power (occultation). As combined force with the Abbasids, the Buyid dynasty 945-1055 maintained a capital at Baghdad.
The Twelvers doctrine of Occultation was proposed by a wealthy Shi’is leader in the court of Baghdad. Sorting a way apparently to “avoid the consequences of the idea that the imam was both visible and infallible” (Pg 8.), which implied his orders superseded the Caliph. Effectually a compromise for the realities of Sunni power, at the time the Shi’is were relatively complacent, seeking compromise. (see Gibb’s). The divide in power evident to the Abbasids accorded by the doctrine of Occultation was determined between the Isma’ilis and attempts to undermine or overthrow the Abbasids, opposing the Sunni Abbasids and allies of the Twelvers. On the qualifications of power in interpreting the will of the twelfth Imam the Buyid’s never attempted to abolish the Caliphate or establish Twelver Shi’ism. The Greater Occultation would of course see to the establishment of Twelver Shi’ism as the state religion of Iran by 1501.<br />
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Until 1501 and the Safavid dynasty, as said and according Western Orientalist accounts of control, Shi’ism as local to Iran, was established where originally the majority of Iranians were Sunni (Pg 8). The national religious identity however, a following cause for conflict, is reduced in peaceful concession to the marriage of Imam Hosain with the Sasanian princess. Following the greater occultation, the Mujtahid as a relative academic source of authority came to control the distinctions between concessions evident in absence of the Imam, that of infallibility, asserted through legal qualification and ‘conservative control’ of the power of the Koran; they commanded a certain respect needed in the loss of divine instillment.<br />
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The mystical bend of Twelver Shi’ism was rapidly transforming into extremism. Particularly and exclusive to the western states of Turkey and Syria; the Hufuri’s who originated in Iran, posited letter-number symbolism called the Bektashi order, central to the later Ottoman Jannisaries. Along with the Safavids a united Sunni/Shi’ite appreciation had followed, by which militant occupation was compatible; and so gaining power over Tabriz in 1501. A renaissance in kind, of earliest Shi’is, following beliefs in reincarnation (with strong ties to the Mongols), they gained power through peasant revolts and nomadic ideology. Moderated later as a middle power, the Safavids developed a conservative doctrine despising their foundations with ‘anarchic’ tribal followers, and the ‘sufi’ ideal once synonomus with Safavids. Invoking subsequently a split between Ottoman Sunni and Anatolian tribes, with support from Ismael I; the split forced violent conflict with Sultan Selim impacting thousands of the Shi’i ‘fifth column’ at Anatolia, who attacked Ismael I the Shah of Iran and Safavid founder and leader, at Chaldiran 1514 furthermore, temporarily invading Tabriz and 'liberating' parts of Mesopotamia in the process.<br />
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<i>Source: Keddie, N.R. & Richard, Y. 2003, Modern Iran: roots and results of revolution, Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn. </i><br />
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<b>Imam</b>: a title of various Muslim leaders, especially of one succeeding Muhammad as leader of Shiite Islam.<br />
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<b>Caliph</b>: the chief Muslim civil and religious ruler, regarded as the successor of Muhammad. The caliph ruled in Baghdad until 1258 and then in Egypt until the Ottoman conquest of 1517; the title was then held by the Ottoman sultans until it was abolished in 1924 by Atatürk.<br />
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<b>Mujtahid</b>: a person accepted as an original authority in Islamic law. Such authorities continue to be recognized in the Shia tradition, but Sunni Muslims accord this status only to the great lawmakers of early Islam.<br />
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The <b>Occultation</b> has two distinct stages, the Lesser Occultation and the Greater Occultation. In the Lesser Occultation, the Hidden Imam continued to communicate with humanity through representatives. Since the Imam was the spiritual guide or light to the rest of humanity, the Lesser Occultation only removed the Imam's body from the world, not his spiritual guidance. However, under the threat of orthodox Muslims, the Hidden Imam entered the period of Greater Occultation which is still continuing. In the Greater Occultation, the Imam is still the spiritual guide and light of the world with one exception: there is no longer any direct communication between humanity and the Imam. The Occultation, then, is a profound spiritual tragedy for the world. It means that the spiritual guide to the earth, the gift of God to humanity, which, throughout the ages has lived, breathed, and conversed with humanity, is out of reach. The Imam is the center of light in the world; the Occultation is the extinguishing of that light for the rest of humanity. The Shi'a world view, then, is profoundly tragic and nostalgic. The Shi'ite longs for a return to a time when spiritual truth walked among us, a time when human perfection stood as an icon for all humans to emulate.</div>
Jason Steven Jowetthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06299966996014985455noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5256145196336009922.post-70671218812840086682017-01-18T07:13:00.003-08:002019-06-27T20:28:10.723-07:00Christendom and the Religious State Divide<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Armenia and Ethiopia were the first states in the world to officially proclaim Christianity as the state religion, dated to 333 AD, though which was first is debated. The branches of Oriental Orthodoxy had formally taken form and the transition accorded along an established trade route through Egypt as closely associated to the Coptic Church of which the Ethiopian Church remained an administrative part until 1959. Oriental Orthodox Christianity became the established church of the Ethiopian Axumite Kingdom under king Ezana in the 4th century when priesthood and the sacraments were brought for the first time through a Syrian Greek named Frumentius, known by the local population in Ethiopia as Abba Selama, Kesaté Birhan ("Father of Peace, Revealer of Light"). As a youth, Frumentius had been shipwrecked with his brother Aedesius on the Eritrean coast. The brothers managed to be brought to the Royal court, where they rose to positions of influence and baptised the Emperor Ezana. Ezana sent Frumentius to Alexandria to ask the Patriarch, St. Athanasius, to appoint a bishop for Ethiopia. Athanasius appointed Frumentius, who returned to Ethiopia as Bishop with the name of Abune Selma.<br />
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The Oriental Orthodox belief, has been traditionally, in the one perfectly unified Nature of Christ. That is, a complete union of the Divine and Human Natures into one singular nature which is self-evident. Opposed to the two Natures of Christ maintained by the Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox Churches. Chalcedonies Christians have considered Miaphysitism in general to be amenable to an orthodox interpretation, but they have nevertheless perceived the Christology of the Oriental Orthodox to be a form of Monophysitism (single nature doctrine). On the contrary Dyophysitism that clearly distinguishes between person and nature, states that Christ is one person in two natures, and emphasises that the natures are without confusion, change, division, or separation. The conflict between these two belief systems stems from the prior practices in Nestorianism firstly which stressed the distinction between the divine and the human in Christ to such an extent that it appears that two persons are/were living in the same body. Nestorianism was condemned at the Council of Ephesus. Alternatively Eutychianism stressed the unity of Christ's nature to such an extent that Christ's divinity consumed his humanity as the ocean consumes a drop of vinegar. Such was also condemned at the Council of Chalcedon.<br />
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Byzantine emperor Zeno in 482 made an unsuccessful attempt with his policy 'Henoticon' to reconcile the differences between the supporters of the Council of Chalcedon and the council's opponents on this matter, causing the Acacian schism which lasted thirty-five years from 484 to 519. The Schism had commenced when Pope Felix III of the years 483 to his death in 492, decreed both Zeno and Acacias the Patriarch of Constantinople remember the need to defend the faith without compromise, just as they all had always done so. At the time John Talaria, the Patriarch of Alexandria, was consigned to the Council of Chalcedon and refused to sign Emperor Zeno's Henoticon (which glossed over the Council of Chalcedon). Zeno thus expelled John and gave rulership to the Miaphysite Peter Mongus on the condition that he would sign Zeno's Henoticon, the Christological document he had prepared to reconcile the Miaphysities with the Dyophysities. Peter Mongus complied and was recognized by the Patriarchs of Antioch and Constantinople. When John, so exiled, arrived in Rome and reported on what was happening in the East, Pope Felix III summoned the Patriarch of Constantinople to Rome to be held accountable. The legates who delivered the Popes notice to Acacias were imprisoned in Constantinople upon arrival and forced to receive Communion from Acacius as part of a Liturgy in which they heard Peter Mongus and other Miaphysites named in the diptychs. Pope Felix, having heard of this insult from the monks in Constantinople, held a synod in 484 in which he denounced his legates and deposed and excommunicated Acacias. Acacius replied in turn by striking Pope Felix's name from his diptychs. Only the Acoemeti in Constantinople stayed loyal to Rome. Acacias soon died in 489, and his successor, Flavitas (or Fravitas, 489–90), tried to reconcile himself with Rome, but refused to give up communion with Miaphysites and to omit Acacius's name in his diptychs. Zeno also died soon thereafter in 491, and his successor Anastasia's I (491–518), began by keeping the policy of the Henotikon, though himself a convinced Miaphysite.
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for more on this by Jason Jowett </div>
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see: <a href="https://realworldorder.blogspot.com/2017/04/christology-religious-state-at-collapse.html" target="_blank">Christology & the religious state at the collapse of the Roman empire</a></div>
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Jason Steven Jowetthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06299966996014985455noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5256145196336009922.post-8097491097384807502015-05-22T03:30:00.006-07:002023-03-23T17:17:06.920-07:00Anglo-Saxony & Arthur Pendragon, King Arthur of Camelot<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Britians favourite myth-history is of King Arthur son of
Uther Pendragon and Igraine, who was the wife to Duke Gorlois of Cornwall.
Arthur led England against the invading Anglo-Saxons 5th-6th century.
9th-century manuscripts by the Welsh cleric Nennius, record Arthurs twelve
battles culminating in the Battle of Mons Badonicus, or Mount Badon, where he
is said to have single-handedly killed 960 men. Whilst the Anglo-Saxon period
is denoted as the very period initiating ‘British’ history, only after the conflict
settlements, and after the Norman conquest of 1066 were the Anglo-Saxons
actually recognised and referred to alone as the creators of the English
nation.
Accounts of the Invasion of pre-Anglo-Saxon Roman-Briton
refer to Ambrosius Aurelianus, Welsh: Emrys Wledig; called Aurelius Ambrosius
who in the Historia Regum Britanniae and elsewhere, was the war leader of the
Romano-British who won battle against the Anglo-Saxons. Ambrosius was still
leading the Britons after this success, but is known to have described his
battles as an "unexpected recovery of the island”. Gildas describes this
period: "From that time, the citizens were sometimes victorious, sometimes
the enemy, in order that the Lord, according to His wont, might try in this
nation the Israel of to-day, whether it loves Him or not. This continued up to
the year of the siege of Badon Hill (obsessionis Badonici montis), and of
almost the last great slaughter inflicted upon the rascally crew. And this
commences, a fact I know, as the forty-fourth year, with one month now elapsed;
it is also the year of my birth". </div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVNV5Gplhmq5Qp-9zvcWMWzHXBvt2WjRmGxHzTEiNnggv6YB3dN1TEPQihSNnCDBmNiHiyqTVUJysWKqJpmJ0_Wa5lMPDmbq9Bou_Bu8_vN7RCwqewrmcZxyHEcYyPDPdGmHEz-AqLIvfuzuovj2gvQvHH7D2wf9JsSDOJowDERlvMH4T00RKpjy8knw/s1024/King%20Arthur.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1024" data-original-width="1024" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVNV5Gplhmq5Qp-9zvcWMWzHXBvt2WjRmGxHzTEiNnggv6YB3dN1TEPQihSNnCDBmNiHiyqTVUJysWKqJpmJ0_Wa5lMPDmbq9Bou_Bu8_vN7RCwqewrmcZxyHEcYyPDPdGmHEz-AqLIvfuzuovj2gvQvHH7D2wf9JsSDOJowDERlvMH4T00RKpjy8knw/s320/King%20Arthur.png" width="320" /></a></div>
Bede accounted victory over the
Saxons and Picts in a mountain valley to Saint Germanus, who he credits with
curbing the threat of invasion for a full generation. However, these victories
were overlooked wholly in further descriptions as invasions having been
accomplished bloodlessly. It was presumed and often directed to a different
occasion by, or from, the General though only if spontaneously assumed of rank.
As from Badon if accepted at face value, St. Germanus's involvement would place
a real battle around 430.
Of those Saxons that went back to “their eastern home".
Gildas calls the peace a "grievous divorce with the barbarians". The
price of peace, Nick Higham argues, it is a better treaty for the Saxons,
giving them the ability to receive tribute from people across the lowlands of
Britain. A political treaty ensued by the Council of Leaders in Britain who
agreed that some land in the east of southern Britain would be given to the
Saxons on the basis of a treaty, a foedus, by which the Saxons would defend the
Britons against attacks from the Picts and Scoti in exchange for food supplies.
The most contemporaneous textual evidence is the Chronica Gallica of 452 which
records for the year 441. The vision of the Anglo-Saxons exercising such
extensive political and military power at an early date remains
contested.
The most developed vision of a continuation in sub-Roman
Britain, with control over its own political and military destiny for well over
a century, is that of Kenneth Dark, who suggests that the sub-Roman elite
survived in culture, politics and military power up to c. 570.
(Considering) By the year 400, southern Britain – that is Britain below
Hadrian’s Wall – was a peripheral part of the Roman Empire in the west,
occasionally lost to rebellion or invasion, but until then had always
eventually been recovered. It was eventually around 410, that Britain was
regarded beyond direct imperial control and termed “sub-Roman". These referrals
of alien lineage regard of course a continual appraisal of migrations, likewise
regarding necessitation of historical fact, with the Arthurian legend.
There remains variant views over how many real migrants came
to Britain on whole this period. Heinke Härke suggested that the figure is around
100,000, based on the molecular evidence, whereas archaeologists such as
Christine Hills and Richard Hodges suggest the number is nearer 20,000.<br /><br />
By
around 500 the Anglo-Saxon migrants were established in southern and eastern
Britain, in a wholly peaceful accession from the likewise alien Romanish.
A grave marked as the resting place of this very King Arthur,
was discovered in Glastonbury 1191 and re-interred in 1278 by King Edward I and
Queen Eleanor, remaining in the abbey until it was destroyed during the
Dissolution in 1539. The abbey of Glastonbury is by the site of the
famed Castle Camelot, as is popularly accepted and called the Tor. Within
Avalon, lies a rich green land with innumerable fresh water springs and
with safe distance to Wales to the West, to the Southern Coast, vast lengths to
the North, and of course far from the South-east mainstay and entry
into France. At this time its considerably possible that the castle there
erected was ruled in the final part by King Arthur, the last of a dynasty of
native Britons, and rulers of southern England and Wales (maybe Ireland too), a
dynasty well established at the turn of the first millennium, whereby
trade routes for Tin was said to reach Israel, a feat no doubt securing
great wealth and prestige for the re-assimilated post-Atlantean society. Well
aware of and able to manage rising tide waters and minor strait migrations, a
trade route of camels across Africas Sahara would have been easily secured and
well kept in secret for many a century. In fact the English Tin would have
bought by trade a wealth of fabrics and spices from the far east to England,
lending both creed and power of never known proportion to the Gaelic lords,
those left under Rome to alien-age in Ireland.</div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /></div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_a1J7BXqf8S4MbbtJ4R9t2ZZpqWY-2R7qXaFnSbkr9POe_Ani3Y7Pq41mY9mhlrDuFa9TJ3uiRMvtzndbo3kAly91rOqOHZBARbG1SlN2EpwFS7kz1A_5emiSqCvZY52TwUE3eyQq_kA40iu81eYYGdNAzWlq4dE6YV2s9Fj3EpDw5H-XgVhP177_2w/s1456/Camelot%20caravan.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="816" data-original-width="1456" height="179" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_a1J7BXqf8S4MbbtJ4R9t2ZZpqWY-2R7qXaFnSbkr9POe_Ani3Y7Pq41mY9mhlrDuFa9TJ3uiRMvtzndbo3kAly91rOqOHZBARbG1SlN2EpwFS7kz1A_5emiSqCvZY52TwUE3eyQq_kA40iu81eYYGdNAzWlq4dE6YV2s9Fj3EpDw5H-XgVhP177_2w/s320/Camelot%20caravan.png" width="320" /></a></div>As the cross-cultural concentration shifted amidst Gaelic & Latin cultures in the new
Anglo-Saxony, the first futhorc runic alphabet was initiated. Said to become
popularized by the Anglo-Saxon settlers, only a few samples in short
inscriptions have been preserved. The Latin influence consumed this largely
deemed pagan cultural precedence, under the influence of Christian
missionaries, a proto-English conversion attributable largely to Vikings. The
concentration of English recordings during the time of the last Pendragon, were
naturally concerned to reverence of a blacksmith, who forged the best swords; a
champion weaponsmith by the name of Welund, according to the poem Deor. Tracing the origins back and
to the Merovingian line Laurence Gardner an authority in antiquity wrote in his
novel titled 'In the Realm of the Ring Lords' that "The Tuatha De Danann
(or Dragon Lords of Anu)...[before settling in Ireland (from about 800
B.C.)]...were the...Black Sea princes of Scythia (now Ukraine). Like the original
dynastic Pharaohs, they traced their descent from the great Pendragons of
Mesopotamia; from them sprang the kingly lines of the Irish Bruithnigh and the
Picts of Scotland’s Caledonia. In Wales they founded the Royal House of
Gwynedd, while in Cornwall in the southwest of England, they were the sacred
gentry known as Pict-Sidhe." <br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEghKTfPCbzPNxCfJm_Fzq2_LSyUwCRu9hU_eG_dqIDnsfzN_zl_1H3R9BKSej33Ob84R8lS8rYjcLGgqAR4s-cq6NmIhEQDAw_W39GEGoOOn6D6eNkVgzKwUHZcPBiyKw2aZ4iuaOqH9lS98Mz1aYVDY4TIO2WMbi4FKZqKt0bjhW7SvjhJ4Y-drqAIBw/s1456/Round%20Table.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="832" data-original-width="1456" height="378" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEghKTfPCbzPNxCfJm_Fzq2_LSyUwCRu9hU_eG_dqIDnsfzN_zl_1H3R9BKSej33Ob84R8lS8rYjcLGgqAR4s-cq6NmIhEQDAw_W39GEGoOOn6D6eNkVgzKwUHZcPBiyKw2aZ4iuaOqH9lS98Mz1aYVDY4TIO2WMbi4FKZqKt0bjhW7SvjhJ4Y-drqAIBw/w661-h378/Round%20Table.png" width="661" /></a></div><br /><br /><br /><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: right;" trbidi="on"><i>Artwork by Midjourney</i></div>
Jason Steven Jowetthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06299966996014985455noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5256145196336009922.post-22076624341047033212015-02-11T23:22:00.000-08:002019-08-09T09:42:39.026-07:00Adaptation of the Norse Poem called VÖLUSPÂ. <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Introduction </div>
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The Viking were instrumental in early British history and after comparison with a few translations of Voluspa, having not read the originating language, I determined that for this adaptation it distinctly outlines a cultural episode between the Viking and what were termed 'black skinned race' (also Elves or Dwarfs). They probably having traveled to Turkey on horseback, considering the complexion of the middle eastern nations, and their proximity and likely trade partnership with Egypt, where Khememu resided; had encountered the cultural phenonemon. As the text is dated 12-13th Century near in the decline of the Vikings, its more probable the storytellers insisted upon this knowing as its historical importance in a treaty, that at last having leveled the cultural influence (along with accounting of the trade of weaponry & servile favor originally under Khememu influence). There is some substantial reconstruction of the account thus, butof the 'Prophesy' of the harp playing, future seeing red woman called Heidi, her visions (and the Vanir) told more or less exactly as was published by the <span style="text-align: center;">Norroena Society in 1906 (an account pliable with intoxication under influence of psychedelic mushrooms). </span><br />
<span style="text-align: center;">The monk whose work was obtained originally in Iceland, had the Norwegian translation. It's likely that without sexual experience he was unable to understand the complex insinuations present, that relates to genetic variety and the distinction between the blackest African race whose genetics, they surely realized weren't recessive at all, and with the necessity for active control measure in breeding against recessive factors to assure that Caucasian off-spring maintained the sought features such as blue eyes, a control also tandem to good military and commercial activity. </span></div>
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<span style="text-align: center;">The relay does detail the earliest Viking cultural memories, so the actual treaty and trade agreement was probably at the beginning of Viking history late 8th Century whence further technological treaties were formed and language, writing and storytelling converged. The structure of the 'poem' indicates it was likely originally a song, probably growing over use, & eventually inscribed. In fact its origin was potentially the end of the bronze age 1200 B.C. (when weaponry of Iron was claimed in England, Germany & Scandinavia from the East). The purer contextual references seems to be oppressed particularly because of the shame involved in inbreeding and the propagation of genetic disorders no doubt prolific in the stone age and being subverted into the bronze age. Where the exclusiveness of the recessive traits, were sought, against necessity to inter-mix in sustenance of a neutral and clean gene pool (contaminated in overt propagation by father-daughter or mother-son breeding), cross cultural activity with a foreign and dominant genetic race, was the crux of issue in family coherence and integrity.</span></div>
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<span style="text-align: center;"><br /></span></div>
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<b style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px;">1.</b><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px;"> In silence I pray for all sacred children, great and small, sons of Heimdall, that they will know my Valfather's deeds. Yet here they shall be recounted, in telling of Odins men.</span></div>
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<b>2.</b> The Jötunn remember those most early born, starting with the Giants rearing young with gifts of bread. By nine worlds I do remember this too as said; nine by the great central tree Yggdrasil, growing above and beneath the earth.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>3.</b> There was a time of old, when only Ymir dwelt, and not else sand nor sea, nor salty waves, nor earth existed. Not heaven above, for 'twas a chaotic chasm; by not one blade of grass anywhere to be.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>4.</b> Even before Bur's sons raised up heaven's vault, and shaped Mithgarth, the sun shone only from the south warming the stones and the earth became green.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>5.</b> With the sun at the south, the sisters came to meet the horses, calling back on them as the Moon does about the heavens path. The Suns high time was in dwelling, but the Moon knew no surprise by the stars in what power was possessed elsewhere.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>6.</b> Then by the Gods these heroes went to their seats in the assembly hall, before all the Holy gods, and made council. Until nights of the waxing and waning moon they came. Received more by names they came, until morn they were named, and until mid-day, afternoon and eve, whereby to they reckoned only of years gone by.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>7.</b> The Æsir met else on Ida's plain; they crafting altars in stead or temples highly constructed; their strength they proved too, by all things, and they tried all, while they sat by their forges smithing precious things from ore with their tongs and tools.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>8.</b> At tables still more played and joyous they were. To them was naught the want of gold, until they became drunken and set off with maidens as many as three, all powerful, from Jötunheim alike.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>9.</b> Then again went all the powers to their seats in the assembly hall, before all the Holy gods and thereon held council, about who should go next to the dwarven races created, from the sea-giant's blood and livid bones.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>10.</b> There was Môtsognir who encountered those created called the dwarfs, and Durin second; there in man's likeness that there were created many dwarfs from earth, Durin said true.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>11.</b> So said Nýi and Nidi, Nordri and Sudri, Austri and Vestri, Althiôf, Dvalin Nâr and Nâin, Niping, Dain, Bivör, Bavör, Bömbur, Nori, An and Anar, Ai, Miodvitnir,</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>12.</b> Veig and Gandâlf, Vindâlf, Thrain, Thekk and Thorin, Thrôr, Vitr, and Litr, Nûr and Nýrâd, Regin and Râdsvid. Now of the dwarfs is soon enough rightly told by so.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>13.</b> As Fili, Kili, Fundin, Nali, Hepti, Vili, Hanar, Svior, Billing, Bruni, Bild, Bûri, Frâr, Hornbori, Fræg and Lôni, Aurvang, Iari, or Eikinskialdi.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>14.</b> Time 'tis of the dwarfs in Dvalin's band, known to the sons of men, to Lofar to reckon upon; those who came forth from the world's rockiest, foundation, to them were called the black elves of Iora's plains, come of Svartalfheim.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>15.</b> They came to Draupnir, and Dôlgthrasir, Hâr, Haugspori, Hlævang, Glôi, Skirvir, Virvir, Skafid, Ai, Alf and Yngvi, Eikinskialdi,</div>
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<b>16.</b> Fialar and Frosti, Finn and Ginnar, Heri, Höggstari, Hliôdôlf, Moin: by that above shall any so say while mortals live, the progeny of Lofars may also in account be.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>17.</b> From them there came three mighty and benevolent Æsir to the world from their own assembly renouned. They who were found on earth, nearly powerless, as Ask and Embla, devoid of destiny.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>18.</b> Spirit they possessed not, sense they had not, blood nor motive powers, nor goodly color were more. Spirit gave Odin, sense gave Hoenir, blood gave Lodur, and goodly color to know these of Svartalfheim.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>19.</b> I know to say true of a standing ash of Yggdrasils height, a lofty tree, laved with limpid water: thence come the dews into the dales that fall clean as pure; where ever it would stand, it becomes as green as over Urd's fountain.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>20.</b> Thence come maidens alike to meetest, and of much knowing was gain, as of three from the very hall in one, or by which is under that tree watered by Urd now in height of the one, the second come more true and on a third forever. So were their laws established on tablets, in life allotted to the sons of men; and destinies departed.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>21.</b> Alone she<span style="color: #042eee; font-size: 8.7px;"><sup> </sup></span>sat left, and without, when came to her a ancient dreaded Æsir's prince; and in his eye she gazed awhile.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>22.</b> "Of what wouldst thou ask me? What temptest thou have of me? Odin! I know all, where thou thine eye didst sink in the pure well of Mim." Mim drinks mead each morn as from Valfather's pledge. Understand ye yet, or what she betrothed?</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>23.</b> The chief of hosts gave her rings and necklace, useful discourse, and a divining spirit: wide and far she saw o'er every world in return.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>24.</b> She the Valkyriur saw from afar coming, ready to ride to the god's people: gifts she held like a shield, quivering second to none, then in comfort to Gunn, Hild Göndul, and Geirskögul. Now enumerated as Herian's own maidens, the Valkyriur, set more their stead for over the earth to ride easy.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>25.</b> She too so saving a war understood well how the first was three times done; Gullveig. She who they did as with lances pierced, and to the high one's hall her burn was heard in screams of the more living.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>26.</b> Heidi they called her, then born whithersoe'r she came, and as well-foreseeing was she. Wolves she tamed, magic arts she knew, magic arts practised; even was she the joy of evil people.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>27.</b> Then went the powers all to their seats in the assembly hall, before all the Holy gods and thereon held council. Whether the Æsir should unite or avenge more crimes just. All the gods received atonement either way.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>28.</b> Broken was the outer wall of the Æsir's burgh. The Vanir, foreseeing conflict, tramp o'er the plains. Odin cast [his spear], and mid the people hurled it: that as to bring the first warfare in all the world.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>29.</b> Then went the powers all to their judgment-seats, the all-holy gods, and thereon held council: who had all the air with evil mingled? or to the Jötun race Od's maid had given?</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>30.</b> There alone was Thor with anger swollen. He seldom sits, when of the like he hears. Oaths are not held sacred; nor words, nor swearing, nor binding compacts reciprocally made.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>31.</b> She knows that Heimdall's horn is hidden under the heaven-bright holy tree. A river she sees flow, with foamy fall, from Valfather's pledge. Understand ye yet, or what?</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>32.</b> East sat the crone, in Iârnvidir, and there reared up Fenrir's progeny: of all shall be one especially the moon's devourer, in a troll's semblance.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>33.</b> He is sated with the last breath of dying men; the god's seat he with red gore defiles: swart is the sunshine then for summers after; all weather turns to storm. Understand ye yet, or what?</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>34.</b> There common on a height she sat, striking a harp, the giantess's watch, the joyous Egdir; by him crowed, in the bird-wood, worn of the bright red cock, at Fialars height.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">
<b>35.</b> Crowed o'er the Æsir Gullinkambi which wakens heroes with the sire of hosts; but another crows beneath the earth, a soot-red cock, in the halls of Hel.</div>
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<b>36.</b> I saw of Baldr, the blood-stained god, Odin's son, the hidden fate. There stood grown up, high on the plain, slender and passing fair, the mistletoe.</div>
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<b>37.</b> From that shrub was made, as to me it seemed, a deadly, noxious dart. Hödr shot it forth; but Frigg bewailed, in Fensalir, Valhall's calamity. Understand ye yet, or what?</div>
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<b>38.</b> Bound she saw lying, under Hveralund, a monstrous form, to Loki like. There sits Sigyn, for her consort's sake, not right glad. Understand ye yet, or what?</div>
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<b>39.</b> Then the Vala knew the fatal bonds were twisting, most rigid, bonds from entrails made.</div>
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<b>40.</b> From the east a river falls, through venom dales, with mire and clods, Slîd is its name.</div>
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<b>41.</b> On the north there stood, on Nida-fells, a hall of gold, for Sindri's race; and another stood in Okôlnir, the Jötuns beer-hall which Brîmir hight.</div>
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<b>42.</b> She saw a hall standing, far from the sun, in Nâströnd; its doors are northward turned, venom-drops fall in through its apertures: entwined is that hall with serpents' backs.</div>
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<b>43.</b> She there saw wading the sluggish streams bloodthirsty men and perjurers, and him who the ear beguiles of another's wife. There Nidhögg sucks the corpses of the dead; the wolf tears men. Understand ye yet, or what?</div>
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<b>44.</b> Further forward I see, much can I say of Ragnarök and the gods' conflict.</div>
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<b>45.</b> Brothers shall fight, and slay each other; cousins shall kinship violate. The earth resounds, the giantesses flee; no man will another spare.</div>
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<b>46.</b> Hard is it in the world, great whoredom, an axe age, a sword age, shields shall be cloven, a wind age, a wolf age, ere the world sinks.</div>
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<b>47.</b> Mim's sons dance, but the central tree takes fire at the resounding Giallar-horn. Loud blows Heimdall, his horn is raised; Odin speaks with Mim's head.</div>
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<b>48.</b> Trembles Yggdrasil's ash yet standing; groans that aged tree, and the jötun is loosed. Loud bays Garm before the Gnupa-cave, his bonds he rends asunder; and the wolf runs.</div>
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<b>49.</b> Hrym steers from the east, the waters rise, the mundane snake is coiled in jötun-rage. The worm beats the water, and the eagle screams: the pale of beak tears carcases; Naglfar is loosed.</div>
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<b>50.</b> That ship fares from the east: come will Muspell's people o'er the sea, and Loki steers. The monster's kin goes all with the wolf; with them the brother is of Byleist on their course.</div>
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<b>51.</b> Surt from the south comes with flickering flame; shines from his sword the Val-gods' sun. The stony hills are dashed together, the giantesses totter; men tread the path of Hel, and heaven is cloven.</div>
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<b>52.</b> How is it with the Æsir? How with the Alfar? All Jötunheim resounds; the Æsir are in council. The dwarfs groan before their stony doors, the sages of the rocky walls. Understand ye yet, or what?</div>
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<b>53.</b> Then arises Hlîn's second grief, when Odin goes with the wolf to fight, and the bright slayer of Beli with Surt. Then will Frigg's beloved fall.</div>
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<b>54.</b> Then comes the great victor-sire's son, Vidar, to fight with the deadly beast. He with his hands will make his sword pierce to the heart of the giant's son: then avenges he his father.</div>
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<b>55.</b> Then comes the mighty son of Hlôdyn: (Odin's son goes with the monster to fight); Midgârd's Veor in his rage will slay the worm. Nine feet will go Fiörgyn's son, bowed by the serpent, who feared no foe. All men will their homes forsake.</div>
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<b>56.</b> The sun darkens, earth in ocean sinks, fall from heaven the bright stars, fire's breath assails the all-nourishing tree, towering fire plays against heaven itself.</div>
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<b>57.</b> She sees arise, a second time, earth from ocean, beauteously green, waterfalls descending; the eagle flying over, which in fell captures fish.</div>
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<b>58.</b> The Æsir meet on Ida's plain, and of the mighty earth-encircler speak, and there to memory call their mighty deeds, and the supreme god's ancient lore.</div>
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<b>59.</b> There shall again the wondrous golden tables in the grass be found, which in days of old had possessed the ruler of the gods, and Fiölnir's race.</div>
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<b>60.</b> Unsown shall the fields bring forth, all evil be amended; Baldr shall come; Hödr and Baldr, the heavenly gods, Hropt's glorious dwellings shall inhabit. Understand ye yet, or what?</div>
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<b>61.</b> Then can Hoenir choose his lot, and the two brothers' sons inhabit the spacious Vindheim. Understand ye yet, or what?</div>
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<b>62.</b> She a hall standing than the sun brighter, with gold bedecked, in Gimill: there shall be righteous people dwell, and for evermore happiness enjoy.</div>
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<b>64.</b> Then comes the mighty one to the great judgment, the powerful from above, who rules o'er all. He shall dooms pronounce, and strifes allay, establish holy peace forever.</div>
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<b>65.</b> There comes the dark dragon flying from beneath the glistening serpent, from Nida-fels. On his wings bears Nidhögg, flying o'er the plain, with a corpse. Now she will descend.</div>
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Jason Steven Jowetthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06299966996014985455noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5256145196336009922.post-60514915529031394842015-01-23T00:50:00.017-08:002021-01-17T00:47:44.718-08:00Neoliths: Pyramids, Stone circles; Atlantis<h2 id="docs-internal-guid-495c8202-7fff-caa4-3e4e-f482501848ed" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 12pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Greek philosopher Plato learned of Atlantis whilst in residence in Cairo. Today his accounts known by Timaeus, a Socratic dialogue, written in about 360 B.C. Egyptians were only one of few societies whose elite survived the great flood which destroyed Atlantis, and one of few who continued their architectural practices mastered from 20,000-30,000 years ago, (among certain other tribes on the Americas and in Cambodia). The loss to society after the immediate cataclysm stagnated with shameful oppression of the elite (the intelligent architects, astronomers, cartographers etc) worldwide, of course, to appropriate the majority of the social strata at this time who were builders and farmers, herdsman and family holders (mothers) in new territories.</span></span></span></span></h2><h2 style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></span></span></span></h2><h2 style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">It was after a meteorite impact in the ice cap, and sudden release of huge plumes of steam into the atmosphere (resulting in continuous rain for 40 days according to biblical sources) along with the ice retreat, giving out considerable water, such that the sea level rose suddenly, dramatically. It had consumed probably 95% of occupied Atlantic coastal territories instantly along with likely a murderous killing trend by desperate survivors ensuing in part after tsunamis amid rapid sea level rising. As much of the earth population at the same time reduced (if not from hailing brimstone immediately) and the great astronomy based masonic tradition evident worldwide such as Stonehenge suffered. Evidence from Orkney in the north of Scotland has suggested the most recent tidal surge which displaced societies across the Lock of Stenness occurred around the year 6000 BCE, pre-dating the Neolithic settlement at the Ness of Brogan.</span></span></span></span></h2><h2 style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></span></span></span></h2><h2 style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In Egypt it’s likely the Great Pyramids were built as a consideration in the firmament of sacred traditions long before held, and likely with the help of deified Thoth, son of Thotme, who was said to be born in a distant country to the west with its main city by the sea called Keor. This land possessed volcanos and the city had a low mountain or large hill in the center. This land is sometimes referred to as the Island of Flame. (Book of the Dead, Hymn of Rameses IV and Pyramid Texts) Like Poseidon ("the earthshaker"), Thoth is sometimes called "cleaver of the earth" (Papyrus of Ani, Chapter LXI) The myth of Atlantis referred to those kingdoms lost to the water, and Egyptian traditions prospered by embracing the very best (likely with plentiful animal stock to receive everyone, as the Sahara was until then fertile savannah). Although its told in Timaeus that ‘men of Atlantis (subjugated) parts of Libya within the columns of Heracles as far as Egypt, and of Europe as far as Tyrrhenia.’ For this region where now the mountains of Atlas were divided, was probably the home of the fittest Homo Sapien tribes who had eradicated the last of the Neanderthal there (Homo sapiens and Neanderthals interbred sometime between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago), spanning from the Moroccan spice hills and mineral-rich Atlas highland (including Spain), to the tropical Canary Islands (all a larger landmass).</span></span></span></span></h2><h2 style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></span></span></span></h2><h2 style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">At the time between 12,980 and 11,600 the temperatures were 20˚ less on average, where the lands for living in the tropical band spanned closer proximity to the equator and between the tropical meridians a variation was much sharper. Glacial north and south of course receded from the snowball earth originally and most of Europe, Africa, Australia and Asian weather was likely too extreme for any development more than nomadic, or semi-permanent settlement until the global temperatures mean stabilisation still common today at around 8,500 BC. Australian records of course show intelligent development up to 30,000 years ago in cave paintings. Babylonian sources describe the enlightened Anunaki, responsible for a blossoming (coming down) technological era, in which we still reside in the early 21st Century. It's quite likely these colonists which saved resource technology from Atlantis were highlanders to the plains of Shinar, wherein they intermingled at times, and interbred. The discentive attribution of these precursor societies to modern Sumeria, as split between Atlanteans and Aborigines could otherwise refer to the whiteness of the Atlanteans and perhaps alternatively or as well as their breeding habits in the missionary position (theoretical relations with the rising sun and a prayer for motherhood by the woman so betrothed, underweight and issued during the sexual event).</span></span></span></span></h2><h2 style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></span></span></span></h2><h2 style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">As the highly intellectualized astronomer building traditions of the displaced people worldwide declined and of pyramid traditions mostly known as Japanese, Indian, SE Asian-Indonesian and American (where great step complexes exist underwater), these remain comparable to the standing stone traditions of the now British isle, but then a continent of far greater size, including druidic traditions as far south as Portugals Sintra.</span></span></span></span></h2><h2 style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></span></span></span></h2><hr style="margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; text-align: left;" /><h2 style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 12pt; margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></span></span></span></h2><h2 style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> People of the ''Magdalenian'' culture living in the popularized ''Atlantean'' period are known to hunt large herds of bison, reindeer, and wild horses that roamed southern Europe then (with traps, snares, and spears). With a semi-settled lifestyle, thought to utilise winter tents opposed to regular occupancy under rock outcrops & caves in summer. “The great increase in art and decorative forms indicates the Magdalenians had leisure time. They also experienced a population explosion, living in riverside villages of 400 to 600 persons; it has been estimated that the population of France increased from about 15,000 persons in Solutrean times to over 50,000 in Magdalenian times,” - Encyclopedia Britannica</span></span></span></span></h2><h2 style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></span></span></span></h2><h2 style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The maps usually depicting this period are regularly set to post-flood geography, but as said, there was no English channel, the way to the Iberian peninsular & Atlas mountains which met the Canary islands (Atlantis) was walk-able from England (around the Pyrenees). Also the Mediterranean was massively smaller, including in territory probably 'all the islands' (dominantly changing the Greek landscape). The strait of Gibraltar was then nothing more than a mountainous river, hence the myth of the Pillar of Hercules, relating to the exodus myth as well, regarding the ability of the strong to traverse the gap during low tides on foot, and then swim, until finally impossible due to significant sea level rising.</span></span></span></span></h2><h2 style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></span></span></h2><h2 style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Though considering that the Sphinx is estimated to be considerably older than the Great Pyramids, it's understandable that the same society who built it, were those who settled primarily into modern-day Cairo. Regarding the Khem society, having the understanding that the Sphinx was originally a Lion, later re-carved into a Sphinx, the likelihood is that it was a monument established at the frontier of the south between societies. Those typically appreciating and respectful to the southern tribes and residents of the Mediterranean, may have formed the border with such a landmark, in tribute of the strength of those living with such a powerful animal, potentially those known originally as Khems. More likely of course is... (9/3/2017) the matter of interpreting a lions monument to primeval African travelers/migrants. In fact if they were heading north skirting the desert and on the western side of the Nile river, they would find the settlement of Cairo. However, originally those traveling north on the east side of the Nile were predictably looking for a passage to India, through the Levant. Water markings on the Sphinx’s body convey that as a partially subsumed lion, to relay a welcome as a sign of prosperity, if the lion was the major attraction of an aqueduct supplied monument; the signification to visitors was that it's a false journey across the river, which of course is riddled with crocodiles. Either way in fact, the travelers either are unwelcome to stumble upon original Cairo, probably bringing trouble in turn, or to cross the river specifically to leave or enter Cairo, both signifying insurgence of one form or another. Original Cairo a vital settlement and first reached on the route south along the Nile, maintained the lion monument to assure immigrants, as a place to welcome the awe-inspiring Khememu, and where you could quench your thirst free from dangers at the river's edge.</span></span></span></span></h2><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span></p>Jason Steven Jowetthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06299966996014985455noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5256145196336009922.post-38678421626802574112015-01-18T22:30:00.004-08:002018-05-21T20:39:20.690-07:00Introduction of 'a treatise on the astrolabe' (adaption)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-size: 19px;">Geoffrey Chaucer, 1391</b></div>
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My son, I’ve perceived your great ability to learn science, so consider yourself gifted now for I will teach you of that what is within the numbers and proportions. Consider I pray for you, alone then and afterwards in your special way, as having learnt these certain special evidences of the treaties of the astrolabe. </div>
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As a philosopher once said "he wraps him up in his friendship, with that but which condescends to the rightful praise of his friend”, therefore in as much as I know the latitude of oxford, upon which, by meditation on a technique told now, I propose to teach you a certain number of conclusions (appertaining to the same instrument). </div>
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I myself see for certain in this, these causes for a conclusions foremost. The first cause is to trust well that all the conclusions that are discovered, or else possibly might be, in so noble an instrument as is this astrolabe, are unknown in part to any mortal man in this region, as how so I do suppose of the same such conclusions. Another cause is that even a soothing grace said by anyone will be for some a conclusion that by all things performed at her behest, is something about them that’s too hard to conceive.</div>
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By this treaties, divided in 5 parts, I will show what is known in the full light and rules of naked English words, which in Latin you cannot know fully, my son. Never the less suffice to say that these true conclusions in english as well sufficed for reason with the noble clerks of the Greeks. These very same conclusions were said in greek mind you, and to Arabians in arabic, and to Jews in hebrew, and to the latin folk of Italy. Which Latin folk had first said thereof, out of all the other diverse languages, and written of them in their own tongue, that is also said alike in Latin, I don’t know. God would that in all these languages and in many more ways than these, know that we do conclude to sufficiently learn and teach by diverse rules, and as rightly diverse as paths that lead diverse folk the right way to Rom. </div>
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Now will I pray concretely that every person that reads or hears this will discretely excuse my rude editing, and superfluous use of words. The reason being for any heavy sentences (and lack of structural form), is only for a standard of a curious child in learning, and lest he forget it all at once.</div>
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Lo behold to show more than this in the light of day, that is which my english says true in conclusion on these mater, and not only but to serve as truth in future with as many a subtile conclusions as forthrightly possible. So will been shown either in latin or in any further communication of this treaties of the astrolabe, I can say thankfully. For I pray so that God saves the King, who is lord of this language, and that in all that his faith bears in obedience, in every degree more and less. So consider well that I am no compiler of the labour of old astrologies, mere set to usurp the labours, as have worked hard to translate a lot into english for this doctrine, and like a sword only more shall I shear ones envies.</div>
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<i>Prima pars.</i> The first part of this treaties shall state the figures and the members of the astrolabe. With this alone you shall have greater knowing of the instrument.</div>
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<i>Secunda pars.</i> The second part shall teach the practical workings of the aforesaid conclusions about this small and portable instrument called the astrolabe, as far fetched and narrow as they may be. For well does every astrologer know that the smallest fractions can be shown in this instrument, as are needed in the most subtle tables calculated for any cause.</div>
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<i>Tertia pars.</i> -The third part shall contend diverse tables of longitudes and latitudes of stars fixed for the astrolabe, tables of the declination's of the sun, tables of longitudes of cites and towns, and tables as well for the governance of a clock. All as so to find the altitude of a meridian and many other notable conclusion known by the calendar after the revered efforts of clerks, Friar J. Somes and Friar N. Lenne.</div>
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<i>Quarta pars.</i> -The fourth part shall describe in theory a declaration of the causal motion of the celestial bodies. The fourth part will show a table of the motion of the moon from hour to hour every day and in every sign too, called the almanac. This table follows with a law sufficient to teach you as well the manor of the operation of this all, so in conclusion as to know yourself in detail how the astrolabe shows the moon arising on the horizon by the set latitudes, and by its degree of the zodiac, and more so the arising of any of the planets on the elliptical line.</div>
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<i>Quinta pars.</i> -The fifth part shall be an introduction, after the statutes of medicine, for which thou must learn a great part of the general rules of theory in astrology. In which fifth part shalt thou find tables of equations of houses after the latitude of Oxford, and tables of dignities of planets, and other interesting things, that by God we would vouch safely by and to say for your maiden mother too, I behest.</div>
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(work in progress...)</div>
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Jason Steven Jowetthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06299966996014985455noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5256145196336009922.post-63314801444575235132015-01-16T15:38:00.005-08:002021-01-31T21:51:52.926-08:00Adaption of 'the true law of free monarchies'<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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On the Reciprocal and mutual duty of a free King and unto his natural Subjects. <br />
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As there is not any other thing so necessary to be known by the people of any land, next to the knowledge of their God; as is the right knowledge of their allegiance, and according to the form of government established among them. Especially so in a Monarchy by which form of government, as resembling the Divinity, approaches nearest to perfection, as all the learned and wise men from the beginning have agreed upon (unity being the perfection of all things). So hath the ignorants, and (which is worse) the seduced opinion of the multitude blinded by them, who think themselves able to teach and instruct in ignorance; procured painful rebellion within our good Commonwealth, and heaped heavy calamities upon the parts while threatening any other with utter destruction.<br />
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In good fortune unlawful rebellions have often times failed against royalty long gone and as such endowing the misery, and iniquities of the time. Naught hath by way of practice those strengthened many in their error. Albeit there cannot be a more deceivable argument, then to judge ay the justness of the cause by the event thereof; as hereafter shall be proved more at length.<br />
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Among others, no Commonwealth that ever hath been since the beginning, hath had greater need of the true knowledge of this ground, then this our so long disordered, and distracted Commonwealth hath. The misunderstanding hereof being the only spring, from whence have flowed so many endless calamities, miseries, and confusions, as is better felt by many, then the cause thereof well known, and deeply considered. The natural zeal therefore, that I bear to this my native country, with the great pity I have to see the so-long disturbance thereof for lack of the true knowledge of this ground (as I have said before) hath compelled me at last to break silence, and to discharge my conscience to you my dear country men herein, that knowing the ground from whence these your many endless troubles have proceeded, as well as you have already too-long tasted the bitter fruits thereof, you may by knowledge, and eschewing of the cause escape, and divert the lamentable effects that ever necessarily follow there upon.<br />
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I have chosen only to set down in this short treatise, the true grounds of the mutual duty, and allegiance between a free and absolute Monarch, and his people; not to trouble your patience with answering the contrary propositions, which some have not been ashamed to set down in writ (to the poisoning of infinite number of simple souls, and their own perpetual, and well deserved infamy). Nay for by the answering of them truly, I so could not have eschewed whiles to pick, and bite well salty their persons; which would rather have born contentiousness then sound instruction of the truth. That all said is which I protest to Him that is the searcher of all hearts, and is the only mark that arch-angel Michael may strike at herein.<br />
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First then, I will set down the true grounds, Of which I’ve constructed from the Scriptures (since Monarchy is the true pattern of Divinity). From next is drawn of the fundamental laws of our own Kingdom, which nearest to our hearts must concern us truly. Thirdly from the law of Nature, by any similitudes drawn out of the same natural truth told virtues. So I will conclude thus after in answering to the most weighty objection that can be imagined.<br />
The Princes duty to his subjects is so clearly set down in many places of the Scriptures, and so openly confessed by all the good Princes, according to their oath in their Coronation, as not requiring recollection of term in perspective, so I shall quickly recount of how Kings are called Gods.<br />
The prophetical King David, the bible states, sat upon Gods throne on the earth, and we have the administration of such to accredit unto him and the Hebrews of Canaan. Their office was to administer justice and judgement to the people, and such King David is told therein of saying ‘To advance the good, and punish the evil’ as he likewise did.<br />
As also known he said ‘To establish good Laws to his people, and procure obedience to the same as any good Kings of Judah’, ‘To procure the peace of the people’, ‘To decide all controversies that can arise among them”, even as Solomon so infamously did.
‘To be the Minister of God for the wealth of them that do good’, and ‘As the minister of God, to take vengeance upon them that do evil’, and finally ‘As a good Pastor, to go out and in before his people, that the peoples peace may be procured’.<br />
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Therefore so such as is said by the coronation of our own Kings, as well as of every Christian Monarch, they give their Oath to:<br />
▴ Maintain the religion presently professed within their country, according to their laws, whereby it is established, and to punish all those that should press to alter, or disturb the profession thereof.<br />
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▴ Maintain all the allowable and good Laws made by their predecessors. To see them put in execution, and the breakers and violators thereof, to be punished, according to the tenor of the same.<br />
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▴ Maintain the whole country, and every state therein, in all their ancient privileges and liberties, as well against all foreign enemies, as among themselves.<br />
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So shortly to procure the wealth and flourishing of his people, not only in maintaining and putting to execution the old loveable laws of the country, and by establishing of new (as necessity and evil manors will require) but by all other means possible to foresee and prevent all dangers, that are likely to fall upon them. So then to maintain concord, wealth, and civility among them, just as a loving Father, and careful watchman, caring for them more then for himself. He is knowing himself to be ordained for them, while they not for him and therefore countable alone to that great God, who made him powerful. Even upon the peril of his soul to procure the wealth of both souls and bodies, as far as in him lie, of all them that are committed to his command and charge, he will act. This oath in as much ceremonially bonded by coronation, is the clearest, most civil, and fundamental law, whereby the Kings office is properly defined as a Order by the Divine Right.</div>
By the law of nature the King becomes a natural Father to all his Lieges at his Coronation. As the Father of his fatherly duty is bound to care for the nourishing, education, and virtuous government of his children, even so is the King bound to care for all his subjects. As all the toil and pain that the father can take for his children, will be thought light and well bestowed by him, so that the effect thereof redound to their profit and wealth; so ought the Prince to do towards his people. As the kindly father ought to foresee all inconvenience and dangers that may arise towards his children, and though with the hazard of his own person press to prevent the same; so ought the King towards his people. As the fathers wrath and correction upon any of his children that offends, ought to be by a fatherly chastisement seasoned with pity, as long as there is any hope of amendment in them; so ought the King towards any of his Lieges that offend in that measure. Shortly said, as the Fathers chief joy ought to be in procuring his children's welfare, rejoicing at their wealth, sorrowing and pitying at their evil, to hazard for their safety, travel for their rest, wake for their sleep, and in a word, to think that his earthly felicity and life stands and lives more in them, nor in himself; so ought a good Prince think of his people.<br />
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As to the other branch of this mutual and reciprocal band, is the duty and allegiance that the Lieges owe to their King. The ground whereof, I take out of the words of Samuel, cited by Gods Spirit, when God had given him commandment to hear the peoples voice in choosing and anointing them a King. Because that place of Scriptures being well understood, is so pertinent for our purpose, I have inserted herein the very words of the text.<br />
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9 Now therefore hearken to their voice: howbeit yet testify unto them, and show them the manor of the King, that shall reign over them. <br />
10 So Samuel told all the words of the Lord unto the people that asked of a King and of him. <br />
11 So he said, this shall be the manor of the King that shall reign over you. He will take your sons, and appoint them to his chariots, and to be his horsemen, and some shall rule before their chariot. <br />
12 Also, he will make of them his captains over thousands, and alike captains over fifties. Then to work his ground, and to reap his harvest, and to make instruments of war and the things that serve for chariots. <br />
13 He will also take your daughters, and make them apothecaries, and cooks, and bakers. <br />
14 He will take from your fields, and your vineyards, and of your olives, and give them to his servants. <br />
15 He will take a tenth of your seed, and of your Vineyards grapes, and give these to his Eunuchs, and to his servants as well. <br />
16 He will take your men-servants, and your maid-servants, and the chief of your young men, and your donkeys, and put them to his work. <br />
17 He will take a tenth of your sheep which shall be his.<br />
18 You shall cry out at that day, because of your King, whom ye have chosen, and the Lord God will not hear you that day.<br />
19 Lo the people would not hear the voice of Samuel, but did say alas Nay, but there shall be a King for us. <br />
20 We also will be like all other Nations, and our King shall judge us and go out before us and fight our battles.<br />
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That these words, and discourses of Samuel were dited by Gods Spirit, it needs no further probation, but that it is a place of Scripture; since the whole Scripture is dited by that inspiration, as Paul said, which ground no good Christian will, or dare deny. Whereupon it must necessarily follow, that these speeches proceeded not from any ambition in Samuel, as one loath to quite the reins that he so long had ruled, and therefore desirous, by making odious the government of a King, to dissuade the people from their farther importunate craving of one. For, as the text proves it plainly, he then convened them to give them a resolute grant of their demand, as God by his own mouth commanded him, saying: Hearken to the voice of the people, and to press to dissuade them from that, which he then came to grant unto them, were a thing very impertinent in a wise man; much more in the Prophet of the most high God. Likewise, it well appeared in all the course of his life after, that his so long refusing of their suite before came not of any ambition in him: which he well proud in praying, and as it were importuning God for the wealth of Saul. Yea, after God had declared his reprobation unto him, yet he desisted not, while God himself was wrath at his praying, and discharged his fathers suit in that errand. And that these words of Samuel were not uttered as a prophecy of Saul their first Kings defection, it well appears, as well because we hear no mention made in the Scripture of his tyrannical oppression, (which, if it had been, would not have been left unpainted out therein, as well as his other faults were, as in a true mirror of all the Kings behaviors, whom it describes) as likewise in respect that Saul was chosen by God for his virtue, and meet qualities to govern his people: whereas his defection sprung after-hand from the corruption of his own nature, and not through any default in God, whom they that think so, would make as a step-father to his people, in making willfully a chaise of the unmeetest for governing them, since the election of that King lay absolutely and immediately in Gods hand. <br />
By the contrary it is plain, and evident, that this speech of Samuel to the people, was to prepare their hearts before the hand to the due obedience of that King, which God was to give unto them; and therefore opened up unto them, what might be the intolerable qualities that might fall in some of their kings, thereby preparing them to patience, not to resist to Gods ordinance: but as he would have said; Since God hath granted your importunate suit in giving you a king, as ye have else committed an error in shaking off Gods yoke, and over-hasty seeking of a King; so beware ye fall not into the next, in casting off also rashly that yoke, which God at your earnest suite hath laid upon you, how hard that ever it seem to be. For as ye could not have obtained one without the permission and ordinance of God, so may you no more, for he be once set over you, shake him off without the same warrant. Therefore in time arm your selves with patience and humility, since he that hath the only power to make him, hath the only power to unmake him; and you only to obey, bearing with these straits that I now foreshow you, as with the finger of God, which lie not in you to take off.<br />
So will you consider the very words of the text in order, as they are set down, it shall plainly declare the obedience that the people owe to their King in all respects; First, God commands Samuel to do two things, the one, to grant the people their suit in giving them a king. The other, to forewarn them, what some kings will do unto them, that they may not thereafter in their grudging and murmuring say, when they shall feel the snares here fore-spoken.
We would never have had a king of God, in case when we craved him, that he had let us know how we would have been used by him, as so now we find but over-late. This is meant more by these words; Now therefore hearken unto their voice, howbeit yet testify unto them, and show them the manor of the King that shall rule over them. Next, would Samuel do in execution of this commandment of God, so he likewise does two things.<br />
First, he declares unto them, what points of justice and equity their king will break in his behavior unto them. Then next he extinguishes their hope, that weary as they will, they shall not have leave to shake off that yoke, which God through their importunity hath laid upon to them. The points of equity that the King shall enforce in them, are expressed in these words:<br />
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11 He will take your sons, and appoint them to his Chariots, and to be his horsemen, and some shall run before his Chariot.
12 Also he will make them his captains over thousands, and captains over fillies, and to care his ground, and to reap his harvest, and to make instruments of war, and the things that serve for his chariots. <br />
13 He will also take your daughters, and make them Apothecaries, and Cooks, and Bakers.<br />
The points of Justice, that he shall break unto them, are expressed in these words:<br />
14 He will take of your fields, and your vineyards, and your best Olive, and give them to his servants.<br />
15 And he will take the tenth of your seed, and of your vineyards, and give it to his Eunuchs and to his servants, and also the tenth of your sheep.<br />
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As if he would say; The best and noblest of your blood shall be compelled in slavish and servile offices to serve him. Not content of his own patrimony, will make up a rent to his own use out of your best lands, vineyards, orchards, and store of cattle. So as inverting the Law of nature, and office of a King, your persons and the persons of your posterity, together with your lands, and all that you possess shall serve his private uses, and inordinate appetite.<br />
As unto the next point (which is his fore-warning them, that, weary as they will, they shall not have leave to shake off the yoke, which God thoroughly in their importunity hath laid upon them) it is expressed in these words:<br />
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18 And you shall cry out at that day, because of your King whom you have chosen, and the Lord will not hear you at that day.<br />
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As he would say; When you shall find these things in proof that now I fore-warn you of, although you shall grudge and murmur, yet it shall not be lawful to you to cast it off, in respect it is not only the ordinance of God, but also your selves that have chosen him unto you, thereby renouncing for ever all privileges, by your willing consent out of your hands, whereby in any time hereafter you would claim, and call back unto your selves again that power, which God shall not permit you to do. For further taking away of all excuse, and retraction of this their contract, after their consent to under-lie this yoke with all the burthens that he hath declared unto them, he cranes their answer, and in consent to his proposition (which appears by their answer) as it is expressed in these words:<br />
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19 Nay, but there shall be a King over us. <br />
20 And we also will be like all other nations, and our king shall judge us and go out before us and fight our battles.<br />
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As if they would have said; All your speeches and hard conditions shall not scare us but we will take the good and evil of it upon us and we will be content to bear whatsoever burthen it shall please our King to lay upon us as well as other nations do. For the good we will get of him in fighting our battles, we will more patiently bear any burden that shall please him to lay on us.<br />
Now then, since the erection of this Kingdom and Monarchy among the Jews, and the law thereof may, and ought to be a pattern to all Christian and well founded Monarchies, as being founded by God himself, who by his oracle, and out of his own mouth gave the law thereof; What liberty can broiling spirits, and rebellious minds claim justly to against any Christian Monarch? Since they can claim to no greater liberty on their part, nor the people of God might have done, and no greater tyranny was ever executed by any Prince or tyrant, whom they can object, nor was here fore-warned to the people of God, (and yet all rebellion countermanded unto them) if tyrannizing over men's persons, sons, daughters and servants; redacting noble houses, and men, and women of noble blood, to slavish and servile offices; and extortion, and spoil of their lands and goods to the princes own private use and commodity, and of his courtiers, and servants, may it be called a tyranny?<br />
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[James continues to argue from scripture that God forbids rebellion against a lawful king, no matter how evil or tyrannical he may be.]<br />
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[James next discusses the historical origins of the Scottish monarchy. Here he argues that monarchy preceded the establishment of the legislature. He also argues a King is above the law—that a lawful monarch may make laws for his subjects, but that his subjects cannot make laws binding on a King.]<br />
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And the agreement of the Law of nature in this our ground with the Laws and constitutions of God, and man, already alleged, will by two similitudes easily appear. The King towards his people is rightly compared to a father of children, and to a head of a body composed of diners members. For as fathers, the good Princes, and Magistrates of the people of God acknowledged themselves to their subjects. And for all other well ruled Commonwealths, the stile of Pater patriae was ever, and is commonly used to Kings. The proper office of a King towards his Subjects, agrees very well with the office of the head towards the body, and all members thereof. For from the head, being the seat of Judgement, proceeds the care and foresight of guiding, and preventing all evil that may come to the body or any part thereof. The head cares for the body, so does the King for his people. As the discourse and direction flows from the head, and the execution according "hereunto belongs to the rest of the members, every one according to their office: so is it betwixt a wise Prince, and his people. As the lodgement coming from the head may not only employ the members, every one in their own office as long as they are able for it; but likewise in case any of them be affected with any infirmity must care and provide for their remedy, in-case it be curable, and if otherwise, gar cut them off for fear of infecting of the rest: even so is it betwixt the Prince, and his people. As there is ever hope of curing any diseased member by the direction of the head, as long as it is whole; but by the contrary, if it be troubled, all the members are partakers of that Paine, so is it betwixt the Prince and his people.
Now first for the fathers part (whose natural love to his children I described in the first part of this my discourse, speaking of the duty that Kings owe to their Subjects) consider, I pray you what duty his children owe to him, and whether upon any pretext whatsoever, it will not be thought monstrous and unnatural to his sons, to rise up against him, to control him at their appetite, and when they think good to slay him, or cut him off, and adopt to themselves any other they please in his room. Or can any presence of wickedness or rigour on his part be a just excuse for his children to put hand into him? Although we see by the course of nature, that love used to descend more then to ascend, in case it were true, that the father hated and wronged the children never so much, will any man, endued with the least spoke of reason, think it lawful for them to meet him with the line? Yea, suppose the father were furiously following his sons with a drawn sword, as if it lawful for them to turn and strike again, or make any resistance but by flight. <br />
I think surely, if there were no more but the example of brute beasts and unreasonable creatures, it may serve well enough to qualify and prove this my argument. We read often the pity that the Storks have to their old and decayed parents: And generally wee know, that there are many sorts of beasts and fowls, that with violence and many bloody strokes will beat and banish their young ones from them, how soon they perceive them to be able to fend themselves; but wee never read or heard of any resistance on their part, except among the vipers; which proves such persons, as ought to be reasonable creatures, and yet unnaturally follow this example, to be endued with their viperous nature.<br />
So for the similitude of the head and the body, it may very well fall out that the head will be forced to cut off some rotten member (as I have already said) to keep the rest of the body in integrity. Though what state the body can be in, if the head, for any infirmity that can fall to it, be cut off, I leave it to the readers judgement.<br />
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So as (to conclude this part) if the children may upon any pretext that can be imagined, lawfully rise up against their Father, cut him off, and choose any other whom they please in his room; and if the body for the wealth of it, may for any infirmities that can be in the head, strike it off, then I cannot deny that the people may rebel, control, and displace, or cut off their king at their own pleasure, and upon respects moving them. Whether these similitudes represent better the office of a King, or the offices of Masters or Deacons of crafts, or Doctors in Physics (which jolly comparisons are used by such writers as maintain the contrary proposition) I leave it also to the discretion.<br />
In case any doubts might arise in any part of this treatise, I will (according to my promise) with the solution of four principal and most weighty doubts, that the adversaries may object, conclude this discourse. First it is cast up by diners, that employ their pennies upon apologies for rebellions and treasons, that every man is borne to carry such a natural zeal and duty to his commonwealth, as to his mother; that seeing it so rent and deadly wounded, as whiles it will be by wicked and tyrannous Kings, good Citizens will be forced, for the natural zeal and duty they owe to their own native country, to put their hand to work for freeing their commonwealth from such a pest.<br />
Whereunto I give two answers: First, it is a sure Axiom in Theology, that evil should not be done, that good may come of it: The wickedness therefore of the King can never make them that are ordained to be judged by him, to become his Judges. If it be not lawful to a private man to revenge his private injury upon his private adversary (since God hath only given the sword to the Magistrate) how much less is it lawful to the people, or any part of them (who all are but private men, the authority being always with the Magistrate, as I have already proud) to take upon them the use of the sword, whom to it belongs not, against the public Magistrate, whom to only it belongs.<br />
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Next, in place of relieving the commonwealth out of distress (which is their only excuse and color) they shall heap double distress and desolation upon it; and so their rebellion shall procure the contrary effects that they pretend it for. For a king cannot be imagined to be so unruly and tyrannous, but the commonwealth will be kept in better order, notwithstanding thereof, by him, then it can be by his way-taking. For first, all sudden mutations are perilous in commonwealths, hope being thereby given to all bare men to set up themselves and fly with other men's feathers, the reins being loosed to all the insolences that disordered people can commit by hope of impunity, because of the looseness of all things.<br />
And next, it is certain that a king can never be so monstrously vicious, but he will generally favor justice, and maintain some order, except in the particulars, wherein his inordinate lusts and passions carry him away; where by the contrary, no King being, nothing is unlawful to none. As so the old opinion of the Philosophers proves true, that better it is to line in a Commonwealth, where nothing is lawful, then where all things are lawful to all men; the Commonwealth at that time resembling an undanted young horse that hath casten his rider: For as the divine Poet Dv BARTAS saith, Better it were to stiffer some disorder in the estate, arid some spots in the Commonwealth, then in pretending to reform, utterly to overthrow the Republic.<br />
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The second objection they ground upon the curse that hangs over the common-wealth, where a wicked king reign: and, say they, there cannot be a more acceptable deed in the sight of God, nor more dutiful to their commonwealth, then to free the country of such a curse, and vindicate to them their liberty, which is natural to all creatures to crave.<br />
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Whereunto for answer, I grant indeed, that a wicked king is sent by God for a curse to his people, and a plague for their sins: but that it is lawful to them to shake off that curse at their own hand, which God hath laid on them, that I deny, and may so do justly. Will any deny that the king of Babel was a curse to the people of God, as was plainly fore-spoken and threatened unto them in the prophecy of their captivity? And what was Nero to the Christian Church in his time? And yet Jeremy and Paul (as you have else heard) commanded them not only to obey them, but heartily to pray for their welfare.
It is certain then (as I have already by the Law of God sufficiently proved) that patience, earnest prayers to God, and amendment of their lines, are the only lawful means to move God to relieve them of that heavy curse. As for vindicating to themselves their own liberty, what lawful power have they to revoke to themselves again those privileges, which by their own consent before were so fully put out of their hands? For if a Prince cannot justly bring back again to himself the privileges once bestowed by him or his predecessors upon any state or rank of his subjects; how much less may the subjects reave out of the princes hand that superiority, which he and his Predecessors have so long brooked over them?<br />
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The unhappy iniquities of the time, which hath oft times given over good success to their treasonable attempts, furnish them the ground of their third objection: For, say they, the fortunate success that God hath so oft given to such enterprises, proves plainly by the practice, that God favored the justness of their quarrel.<br />
To the which I answer, that it is true indeed, that all the success of battles, as well as other worldly things, lie only in Gods hand: And therefore it is that in the Scripture he takes to himself the style of God of Hosts. But upon that general to conclude, that he ever gives victory to the just quarrel, would prove the Philistines, and common other neighbor enemies of the people of God to have often times had the just quarrel against the people of God, in respect of the many victories they obtained against them. And by that same argument they had also just quarrel against the Ark of God: For they want it in the field, and kept it long prisoner in their country. As likewise by all good Writers, as well Theologies, as other, the Duels and singular combats are disallowed; which are only made upon presence, that GOD will kith thereby the justice of the quarrel: For we must consider that the innocent party is not innocent before God: And therefore God will make oft times them that have the wrong side revenged justly his quarrel; and when he hath done, cast his scourge in the fire; as he oft times did to his own people, stirring up and strengthening their enemies, while they were humbled in his sight, and then delivered them in their hands. So God, as the great Judge may justly punish his Deputy, and for his rebellion against him, stir up his rebels to meet him with the like: And when it is done, the part of the instrument is no better then the devils part is in tempting and torturing such as God commit to him as his hangman to do: Therefore, as I said in the beginning, it is oft times a very deceivable argument, to judge of the cause by the event.<br />
And the last objection is grounded upon the mutual pact and ad-stipulation (as they call it) between the King and his people, at the time of his coronation: For there, say they, there is a mutual pact, and contract bound up, and sworn between the king, and the people: Whereupon it follows, that if the one part of the contract or the Indent be broken upon the Kings side, the people are no longer bound to keep their part of it, but are thereby freed of their oath: For (say they) a contract between two parties, of all Law frees the one party, if the other break unto him.<br />
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As to this contract allege made at the coronation of a King, although I deny any such contract to be made then, especially containing such a clause irritant as they allege; yet I confess, that a king at his coronation, or at the entry to his kingdom, willingly promise to his people, to discharge honorably and truly the office given him by God over them. Presuming that thereafter he break his promise unto them never so inexcusable; the question is, who should be judge of the break, giving unto them, this contract were made unto them never so sicker, according to their allegiance. I think no man that hath but the smallest entrance into the civil Law, will doubt that of all Law, either civil or municipal of any nation, a contract cannot be thought broken by the one party, and so the other likewise to be freed thereof, except that first a lawful trial and cognition be had by the ordinary Judge of the breakers thereof. Or else every man may be both party and Judge in his own cause; which is absurd once to be thought. Now in this contract (I say) between the King and his people, God is doubtless the only Judge, both because to him only the king must make count of his administration (as is oft said before) as likewise by the oath in the coronation, God is made judge and revenger of the breakers. For in his presence, as only judge of oaths, all oaths ought to be made. Then since God is the only judge between the two parties contractors, the cognition and revenge must only appertain to him. It follows therefore of necessity, that God must first give sentence upon the King that break, before the people can think themselves freed of their oath. What justice then is it, that the party shall be both judge and party, usurping upon himself the office of God, may by this argument easily appear. So shall it lie in the hands of headless multitude, when they please to weary off subjection, to cast off the yoke of government that God oath laid upon them, to judge and punish him, whom-by they should be judged and punished; and in that case, wherein by their violence they kythe themselves to be most passionate parties, to use the office of an ungracious Judge or Arbiter? Nay, to speak truly of that case, as it stands between the King and his people, none of them ought to judge of the others break.<br />
Considering rightly the two parties at the time of their mutual promise, the King is the one party, and the whole people in one body are the other party. And therefore since it is certain, that a king, in case so it should fall out, that his people in one body had rebelled against him, he should not in that case, as thinking himself free of his promise and oath, become an utter enemy, and practice the wreak of his whole people and native country: although he ought justly to punish the principal authors and bellows of that universal rebellion. How much less then ought the people (that are always subject unto him, and naked of all authority on their part) press to judge and overthrow him? Otherwise the people, as the one party contractors, shall no sooner challenge the king as breaker, but he as soon shall judge them as breakers: so as the victors making the tyners the traitors (as our proverb is) the party shall aye become both judge and party in his own particular, as I have already said.<br />
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And it is here likewise to be noted, that the duty and allegiance, which the people swears to their prince, is not only bound to themselves, but likewise to their lawful heirs and posterity, the lineal succession of crowns being begun among the people of God, and happily continued in diners Christian common-wealth's: So as no objection either of heresy, or whatsoever private statute or law may free the people from their oath-gluing to their King, and his succession, established by the old fundamental laws of the Kingdom: For, as he is their heritable over-lord, and so by birth; not by any right in the coronation, comes to his crown; it is a like unlawful (the crown ever standing full) to displace him that succeed thereto, as to elect the former: For at the very moment of the expiring of the king reigning, the nearest and lawful heir entreaty in his place: And so to refuse him, or intrude another, is not to horde out uncoming in, but to expel and put out their righteous King. And I trust at this time whole France acknowledge the superstitious rebellion of the liguers, who upon presence of heresy, by force of arms held so long out, to the great desolation of their whole country, their native and righteous King from possessing of his own crown and natural Kingdom.<br />
Not that by all this former discourse of mine, and apology for Kings, I mean that whatsoever errors and intolerable abominations a sovereign prince commit, he ought to escape all punishment, as if thereby the world were only ordained for Kings, and they without control to turn it upside down at their pleasure: but by the contrary, by remitting them to God (who is their only ordinary Judge) I remit them to the sorest and sharpest school master that can be devised for them: for the further a King is preferred by God above all other ranks and degrees of men, and the higher that his seat is about theirs, the greater is his obligation to his maker. Therefore in case he forgets himself (his unthankfulness being in the same measure of height) the sadder and sharper will his correction be; and according to the greatness of the height he is in, the weight of his fall will recompense the same. For the further that any person is obliged to God, his offence becomes and grows so much the greater, then it would be in any other. Joves thunder-claps light often and sorer upon the high & stately cakes, then on the low and supple willow his: and the highest bench is sliddriest to sit upon. Neither is it ever heard that any king forgets himself towards God, or in his vocation; but God with the greatness of the plague revenges the greatness of his ingratitude: Neither think I by the force and argument of this my discourse so to persuade the people, that none will hereafter be raised up, and rebel against wicked Princes. But remitting to the justice and providence of God to stir up such scourges as pleases him, for punishment of wicked Kings (who made the very vermin and filthy dust of the earth to bridle the insolence of proud Pharaoh) my only purpose and intention in this treatise is to persuade, as far as lie in me, by these sure and infallible grounds, all such good Christian readers, as bear not only the naked name of a Christian, but kith the fruits thereof in their daily form of life, to keep their hearts and hands free from such monstrous and unnatural rebellions, whensoever the wickedness of a Prince shall procure the same at Gods hands: that, when it shall please God to cast such scourges of princes, and instruments of his fury in the fire, you may stand up with clean hands, and unspotted consciences, having proved your selves in all your actions true Christians toward God, and dutiful subjects towards your King, having remitted the judgement and punishment of all his wrongs to him, whom to only of right it appertain.<br />
But craving at God, and hoping that God shall continue his blessing with us in not sending such fearful desolation, I heartily wish our Kings behavior so to be, and continue among us, as our God in earth, and loving Father, endued with such properties as I described a King in the first part of this Treatise. And that ye (my dear countrymen, and charitable readers) may press by all means to procure the prosperity and welfare of your King; that as he must on the one part thine all his earthly felicity and happiness grounded upon your wealth, caring more for himself for your sake then for his own, thinking himself only ordained for your wealth; such holy and happy emulation may arise between him and you, as his care for your quietness, and your care for his honor and preservation, may in all your actions daily strive together, that the Land may think themselves blessed with such a King, and the King may think himself most happy in ruling over so loving and obedient subjects.<br />
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- King James I of England, King of England, Ireland, Scotland & France</div>
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Jason Steven Jowetthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06299966996014985455noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5256145196336009922.post-7444786540518180542015-01-09T22:28:00.008-08:002023-10-10T21:07:31.289-07:00India & the Greek Hellenisation<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
India's long history of warfare has a important series of colonisations recently with the Portuguese (1505–1961) and Britain (1612–1947). European occupation started with the Macedonian army of Alexander the Great however in 327–326 BC, with which he assimilated a part temporarily within the satrapies of his Maced-Persian Empire (begun under Cyrus the Great, 530 BCE). Seeking to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea” Alexanders army was trumped by the Nanda empire and returned west only for Alex to die suspiciously in Babylon in 323 BC on return. Initially having proposed a march further east to conquer the old empire of Magadha and Gangaridai, which would have brought him to the doorstep of Burma and Thailand; however though across the Ganga the Kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting his army with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand war elephants. General Coenus masterminded the retreat, with further victories on return, but affixing Alexanders duty mostly in placating the Persian leaders with the Macedonian veterans.</div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgfYDzfBMODTmDKYoGU_JAnEManXR7y6YHrvajslAQR1vPAtfCJPcrcMcJ9vBQxxLE66bNSVDlZHn6LVKbMLlh5wLicf-0YwiRBLOtet1TISvtbuHHr3E-jX1nH9upXoX14eSEB4JK-Pc5w7Li_m0dPg_gG6tGNG10k1EX4DQjcnl6cSL2U4g4wmoE0pQ/s1456/Kudomos_armored_elephants_war_Alexander_Ganga%202.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="816" data-original-width="1456" height="179" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgfYDzfBMODTmDKYoGU_JAnEManXR7y6YHrvajslAQR1vPAtfCJPcrcMcJ9vBQxxLE66bNSVDlZHn6LVKbMLlh5wLicf-0YwiRBLOtet1TISvtbuHHr3E-jX1nH9upXoX14eSEB4JK-Pc5w7Li_m0dPg_gG6tGNG10k1EX4DQjcnl6cSL2U4g4wmoE0pQ/s320/Kudomos_armored_elephants_war_Alexander_Ganga%202.png" width="320" /></a></div></div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
As far as historical records tell this, its unknown, though of oral traditions, however dramatised, Indias mighty history of warfare stems with closely assimilated trading and inter-cultural traditions from Burma and SE Asia all the way west to Persia. The Indian history is the most long and complex of any in the world starting before 3102 BCE with Arjuna and the Pandavas. Most likely mythic Arjuna was a confluence of the first military general, and a mixing of personas from a historical Arjuna. Probably he was the most gallant suitor of a young lady ever remembered, and capture of her priest-King father. Arjuna is the shining one or famous like silver, born into the royal family of Hastinapura. He was acknowledged as a son of Pandu by his first wife Kunti, Arjuna was the third son, after Yudhishthira and Bhima. Younger to him were the twin sons. Receiving tutelage from Drona, in homage Arjuna and his brothers, attacked Panchal and captured King Drupada, who was so impressed by Arjuna he bid he marry his daughter, Draupadi (beginning the epic of the Mahabharata). Likely in fact just a trick knowing Arjunas' real fondness; after courtship of Draupadi he went off for a twelve year pilgrimage. Having met his cousin Krishna then, Arjuna and Subhadra would elope, Subhadra giving birth to a son: Abhimanyu. Perhaps by another account (and into the epic of Bhagavad Gita), Arjuna was actually sent into exile (perhaps both happened consequentially). Later Arjuna, considered powerful enough to be an emperor; subjugated the kingdoms of Indraprastha in the Kurukshetra war.</div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhHiJB-sbeQKuFJO2cp89XZXpB61FIyn1jkZIofe3NHeVmAKybM0kGPep1CF858wyI2fwG5SZqpWUNRywRl4hXvZ8BN-9d09MWr7VsANqNGMYIGzeVhh5eAHg7BfVrQmjN42ajspyxUfko3FHDsk-jDC0o2P39CH_YX5HtQxQFmOd1FCJvmlwWMppbjPw/s1456/Kudomos_Arjuna_courts_Draupadi.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="832" data-original-width="1456" height="378" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhHiJB-sbeQKuFJO2cp89XZXpB61FIyn1jkZIofe3NHeVmAKybM0kGPep1CF858wyI2fwG5SZqpWUNRywRl4hXvZ8BN-9d09MWr7VsANqNGMYIGzeVhh5eAHg7BfVrQmjN42ajspyxUfko3FHDsk-jDC0o2P39CH_YX5HtQxQFmOd1FCJvmlwWMppbjPw/w662-h378/Kudomos_Arjuna_courts_Draupadi.png" width="662" /></a></div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
Called "the jewel in the British crown” Britain claimed a significant fortune from the Spice and Gem rich subcontinent out of Bombay, and alongside the Portuguese based in Goa. Riches in spice trade between India and Europe was the main inspiration for the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus in 1492 in fact. Portuguese sailor Vasco da Gama became the first European to re-establish direct trade links with India since Roman times by being the first to arrive by circumnavigating Africa (1497–1499). Having arrived in Calicut, which by then was one of the major trading ports of the eastern world, he obtained permission to trade in the city from Saamoothiri Rajah. Roman and Greek traders frequented the ancient Tamil country (present day Southern India and Sri Lanka) securing trade with the seafaring Tamil states of the Pandyan, Chola and Chera dynasties, and establishing trading settlements which secured trade with South Asia by the Greco-Roman world, lost since the time of the Ptolemaic dynasty.</div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhOeOzGrdZ4Q9QjmL4cA397pbGusCI9HWv4ZA-4G14tbt3vvhbdsqb4FO00f7hMIxt3dBJpo_0TQe7wEY3T6p6h1Ajj1Je6T7Ehtu0dO2xyyUIJn6ZuI7Z2zxFhQQKxLJ7ve5SwtF2OutJsgZMXvJX4WE6u2dqXqXDyVCvpIL3MwOgMmDh5U_TGPmnfmg/s1625/dual%20cleopatra.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="832" data-original-width="1625" height="164" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhOeOzGrdZ4Q9QjmL4cA397pbGusCI9HWv4ZA-4G14tbt3vvhbdsqb4FO00f7hMIxt3dBJpo_0TQe7wEY3T6p6h1Ajj1Je6T7Ehtu0dO2xyyUIJn6ZuI7Z2zxFhQQKxLJ7ve5SwtF2OutJsgZMXvJX4WE6u2dqXqXDyVCvpIL3MwOgMmDh5U_TGPmnfmg/s320/dual%20cleopatra.png" width="320" /></a></div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Ptolemy, one of the six somatophylakes (bodyguards) who served as Alexander the Great's generals and deputies, was appointed satrap of Egypt after Alexander's death in 323 BC. In 305 BC, he declared himself King Ptolemy I, later known as "Soter" (saviour). The Egyptians soon accepted the Ptolemies as the successors to the pharaohs of independent Egypt. Ptolemy's family ruled Egypt until the Roman conquest of 30 BC. All the male rulers of the dynasty took the name Ptolemy. Ptolemaic queens, some of whom were the sisters of their husbands, were usually called Cleopatra, Arsinoe or Berenice. Cleopatra VII co ruled with her son by Julius Ceasar; Ptolemy Caesar who only had rulership for 11 days before he was executed by Octavian, brought an end to Ptolemaic rule of Egypt.</div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirDsyEendihAvhibXrQhUhZEuJODJDD0Iw_DjcC-XD2aNEw2QF8HZCy3fR1rAsHhvaLvLFuU0hXPBd2wVf7C9Ah-zQCMHEBOjhXJxbeJZRP7qU85WF1yNvfAz15eKxRpsFgDHzLv00IcVP0LqVHw9DQ-ikiOa0VrRYt-tajd8BgcNCJpMmnzbKDygIRA/s1456/Desert%20Palace%202.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="816" data-original-width="1456" height="357" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirDsyEendihAvhibXrQhUhZEuJODJDD0Iw_DjcC-XD2aNEw2QF8HZCy3fR1rAsHhvaLvLFuU0hXPBd2wVf7C9Ah-zQCMHEBOjhXJxbeJZRP7qU85WF1yNvfAz15eKxRpsFgDHzLv00IcVP0LqVHw9DQ-ikiOa0VrRYt-tajd8BgcNCJpMmnzbKDygIRA/w639-h357/Desert%20Palace%202.png" width="639" /></a></div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
The lands Alexander had subjugated became the Seleucid empire thereafter and though there are four ancient sources that describe the Partition of Babylon, the only complete account is Diodorus Siculus's Bibliotheca historica; the first to be written, c. 40 BC. The Greeks, Armenians, Persians, Medes, Assyrians, Jews and Indians were privileged with Hellenization which was a term for the historical spread of ancient Greek culture and, to a lesser extent, language, over foreign peoples conquered by Greece or brought into its sphere of influence. Attributed to the reign of Emperor Heraclius (r. 610–641) in the 7th century (Hellenization can also refer to the medieval Byzantine Empire and Constantine's founding of Constantinople - Eastern Roman Empire that was Hellenized), the practice didn’t become commonplace until the fusion of Platonic and Aristotelian theology with Christianity.</div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /></div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div style="text-align: right;"><i>Artwork by Midjourney</i></div>
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Jason Steven Jowetthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06299966996014985455noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5256145196336009922.post-48345719071062562072015-01-05T04:18:00.000-08:002016-05-10T02:01:54.450-07:00The Kingdom of Israel and the Hebrew name of God<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
When the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, David Lloyd George, wished to knock the Ottoman Empire out of the war in 1918 a conquest of Palastine commenced, albeit a crusade. By the end of 1917 all the objectives of the campaign to capture Jerusalem had been achieved but not until May 14, 1948, did David Ben-Gurion proclaim the establishment of the State of Israel, once again. The united Kingdom of Israel is said to have existed from about 1030 to about 930 BCE. It was a union of all the twelve Israelite tribes living in the area that presently approximates modern Israel and the Palestinian territories. Last beginning with the House of Saul, the first king of a united Kingdom of Israel and Judah would have lived circa 1082 BC–1010 BC. Proposed in the bible to be anointed by the prophet Samuel. Saul fell on his sword to avoid capture in the battle against the Philistines at Mount Gilboa, during which three of his sons were also killed. The succession to his throne was contested by Ish-bosheth, his only surviving son, and his son-in-law David, who eventually prevailed.<br />
Following the second King of the United Kingdom of Israel and Judah c. <a href="tel:1040%E2%80%93970" x-apple-data-detectors-result="0" x-apple-data-detectors-type="telephone" x-apple-data-detectors="true">1040–970</a> BC, (reign over Judah c. <a href="tel:1010%E2%80%931002" x-apple-data-detectors-result="1" x-apple-data-detectors-type="telephone" x-apple-data-detectors="true">1010–1002</a> BC), King David had reign in the years <a href="tel:1002%E2%80%93970" x-apple-data-detectors-result="2" x-apple-data-detectors-type="telephone" x-apple-data-detectors="true">1002–970</a> BC. The Judean royal dynasty called the House of David, commenced in succession with King Solomon son of David. The ten northern tribes of the Kingdom of Israel rejected this Davidic line soon enough however, refusing to accept Rehoboam son of Solomon, and instead chose as King; Jeroboam. Dividing Israel, by forming the northern Kingdom of Israel, these Kingdoms were eventually conquered by Assyria.<br />
A 2nd-century work by Seder Olam Rabbah, places construction of the First Temple Solomon's Temple in 832 BCE and destruction in 422 BCE. The holy temple was plundered by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar when the Babylonians attacked Jerusalem during the brief reign of Jehoiachin c. 598 (2 Kings 24:13) In turn the Dome of the rock was constructed, remaining till modern day.<br />
The Kodesh Hakodashim, or Holy of Holies, (1 Kings 6:19; 8:6), also called in the Bible the "Inner House" (6:27), (Heb. 9:3) was 20 cubits in length, breadth, and height. The usual explanation for the discrepancy between its height and the 30-cubit height of the temple is that its floor was elevated, like the cella of other ancient temples. It was floored and wainscotted with cedar of Lebanon (1 Kings 6:16), and its walls and floor were overlaid with gold (6:20, 21, 30). It contained two cherubim of olive-wood, each 10 cubits high (1 Kings 6:16, 20, 21, 23–28) and each having outspread wings of 10 cubits span, so that, since they stood side by side, the wings touched the wall on either side and met in the centre of the room. There was a two-leaved door between it and the Holy Place overlaid with gold (2 Chr. 4:22); also a veil of tekhelet (blue), purple, and crimson and fine linen (2 Chr. 3:14; compare Exodus 26:33). It had no windows (1 Kings 8:12) and was considered the dwelling-place of the "name" of God.<br />
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Israelites and their ancestors (Caanites) language was not referred to by the name Hebrew in the Tanakh (or Miqra, the canon of the Hebrew Bible). The earliest examples of written Paleo-Hebrew date from the 10th century BCE, said to have been fixed in tradition by the Hasmonean dynasty. As Rabbinic Judaism suffered after the destruction of the First Temple in 587 BCE, Hebrew was only revived nationally in the new Israel by Ben Yehuda. In Paris he met a Jew from Jerusalem, who spoke Hebrew with him. It was this use of Hebrew in a spoken form that convinced him that the revival of Hebrew as the language of a nation was feasible. In 1881 Ben-Yehuda (1858 – 16 Dec 1922) immigrated to Palestine (then ruled by the Ottoman Empire), and settled in Jerusalem. He found a job teaching at the Alliance Israelite Universelle school. Motivated by the surrounding ideals of renovation and rejection of the diaspora lifestyle, Ben Yehuda set out to develop a new language that could replace Yiddish and other regional dialects as a means of everyday communication between Jews in a new country of Israel (with the recall of 3 million Jews from over 90 countries, most returning from Russia). Opposition was staunch firstly from Jerusalem's ultra-Orthodox community, who treasured liturgical use alone. With fierce objection to use of lingua franco Hebrew (bridge language, trade language, or vehicular language), known also as the 'holy tongue', the conversion for everyday conversation was accomplished in turn. <br />
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981 different texts discovered between 1946 and 1956, proposed to be originated at the library of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem; include the second oldest known surviving manuscripts of works later included in the Hebrew Bible informance, along with deuterocanonical and extra-biblical manuscripts which preserve evidence of the diversity of religious thought in late Second Temple Judaism. There are only two silver scrolls which contain biblical text and are older than the Dead Sea Scrolls; they have been excavated in Jerusalem at Ketef Hinnom and are dating from around 600 BCE.<br />
Accordingly the descendants of King David, the ancient peoples of C.700 B.C. left record etched on silver; of their common prayer. It relays a idealisation of tribute and request to God, regarding the will to be happy, appear beautifully and to keep accounting in order for financial success. The canonical language contains infamously a word for (the name of) God which cannot be pronounced today, but is spelt in english as YHWH. That a four letter word means God and how so is not understood but the likelihood of translation in todays language from Hebrew is a best fit scenario.<br />
Hebrew was known to contain a unique dichotomy where in its structure | signifies motion from heaven to earth or vis-a-versa, and __ is the earthly, and ¯¯¯ is the heavenly increment (being horizontal upper & lower bars). The name of God contains three shafts between heaven and earth, one in each of the final 3 of 4 letters. The first doesn’t relay the direct initiation of Heaven & Earth (representable with a ‘ | ‘ - or shaft) rather a rite as the first letter with a fixed Heaven opposite the fixed Earth and a primary Heavens cord to a final Earth accord (backward in English still in this form it’s very significant and opposite if read backwards).<br />
The horizontal bars following the ‘rite’ letter (which is regularly ‘sleep’ in modern short repeated, or meaning to dream or make understanding of a dream being the last letter) conveys following to the second letter, the duty of farming by a tree with a symbolic temporal accord by the elevated and separate spur (curve). Containing emphatic determination of the working day with superiority within the natural world, a followed coupling or ‘pair’ lettering, mostly ensues in signifying animal companions, human companionship, and betrothal, succeeding with children in family.<br />
The reasons are so; these two letters are a second half of the full word, its firstly diminutive to the first, relaying after the worldly superiority, and composite capacity; the necessity to work for good life. Yet not only, also for life itself in strength and defence, so typicality of bonding is contained, that appropriated by animal domestication, and restricted therein. The benefits of such law are hence ‘in supply’ and granting the luxury of a good life, hence the Heaven and Earth twin accordance. Following in reason by the dual elevation and supple-like form in the succeeded appropriation of a new generation ‘closer to God’ in good wealth & beauty “May his face shine upon you, with graciousness and countenance”. <br />
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Implicitly the human nature is of benefit with communal appreciation though this is implicit, its relation is direct in finalisation by the dot ‘.‘ (also critical in grammar commonly today). By the stars through the night, after the day, life magnifies their dutiful will to God too repeated in goodness, and by integrity they keep unwanted ‘halves’ at bay. The raising of the matters of accordance contain complex insinuations and the structure of this half upper last half, with woven cross motion from and to the Kingdom of God, contains the benediction of suffering, by and by to the rulership of the alternative kingdoms of God. For those not in command ‘of the one (true God)’ they are ordered to pass over, whether with this life in its path or as friend.<br />
'The star of tonight becomes tomorrows sun', and the cycle repeats, where the third letter has no connection between the earth-heaven with the Heaven, whilst the fourth does, and in reverse. This interpretative analysis is typical of the meaning for the name of God (hermeneutics) as synonymous with the lifestyle of God's chosen people.<br />
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Jason Steven Jowetthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06299966996014985455noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5256145196336009922.post-29071864026715974002014-12-21T22:59:00.000-08:002019-08-10T05:22:17.561-07:00Catholicism: Anglo-Spanish & the New World<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
When the Holy Roman Empire was a fragmented collection of largely independent states, titular Holy Roman Emperors from the House of Habsburg directly ruled large portions of Imperial territory, one dynasty ending with Elizabeth I of England. The House of Habsburg, also ruled Spain, including the Spanish Netherlands, southern Italy, the Philippines, and most of the Americas.<br />
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In the Cologne War 1583–88 amid a Protestant Reformation in Germany and its subsequent Counter-Reformation, (and concurrently with the Dutch Revolt and the French Wars of Religion), when Catholics sought peace, Spanish troops acted by expelling a Prince Archbishop and replacing him with a Roman Catholic. After this success, the principle of cuius regio, eius religio began to be exerted strictly forcing Protestant-Lutheran residents to choose between conversion or exile (Martin Luther's initial agenda called for the reform of the Church's doctrines and practices, but invoked his excommunication from the Church).<br />
Much to the consternation of their Spanish ruling cousins, the Habsburg emperors who followed Charles V (especially Ferdinand I and Maximilian II, but also Rudolf II, and his successor Matthias) were content to allow the princes of the empire to choose their own religious policies. These rulers avoided religious wars within the empire by allowing the different Christian faiths to spread without coercion. This however angered those who sought religious uniformity such as the Protestant Union or the Catholic League, who together were merely sympathetic of the increasingly intolerant behavior towards others personal religious/political beliefs.<br />
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The ports of modern day Belgium, were notorious Privateer bases, plaguing the English fleets, and a Anglo-Spanish War had commenced in 1585 with England joining the Eighty Years' War on the side of the Dutch Protestant United Provinces, who had declared their independence from Spain. Sparing the long sown religious disturbances to Protestantism by Catholic Spain, Sir Frances Drake sailed for the West Indies to sack Santo Domingo, and additionally capture Cartagena de Indias, and St. Augustine in Florida. <br />
As relations with Elizabeth I of England had begun to deteriorate prior, particularly after a restoration of Royal supremacy over the Church of England through the Act of Supremacy in 1559 (the Act was considered by Catholics as an usurpation of Papal authority and some English Protestants championed the Dutch Protestant ‘rebels’ directly against Spain); Sir John Hawkins, (who gained accreditation from Elizabeth I while the Spanish government complained that Hawkins' trade with their colonies in the West Indies constituted smuggling) fought the Spanish in September 1568, at the Battle of San Juan de Ulúa near Veracruz Mexico. Occurring when a slaving expedition led by Sir Francis Drake and Sir Hawkins met a surprise attacked by the Spanish, and several ships were captured or sunk. The battle soured Anglo-Spanish relations badly and in the following year the English detained several treasure ships sent by the Spanish to supply their army in the Netherlands. Drakes (and Hawkins) intensified ‘privateering’ continued as a way to break the Spanish monopoly on Atlantic trade.<br />
The English hit back in Galicia (north of Portugal) and sacked Vigo and Baiona, when Philip II planned a full invasion in retaliation. In the same year, the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots had outraged Catholics in Europe, and her claim on the English throne passed over (by her own deed of will) to Philip. Philip II obtained Papal authority to overthrow Elizabeth hence, who was excommunicated by Pope Pius V, and he was granted power to place whomever he chose on the throne of England.
Mary who was raised in France and bore James I, had been found guilty of plotting to kill Elizabeth.<br />
Philip assembled a fleet of about 130 ships, containing 8,000 soldiers and 18,000 sailors. To finance this endeavor, Pope Sixtus V had permitted Philip to collect crusade taxes for their holy cause, and promised a further subsidy too should they actually reach England. On 28 May 1588, the Armada set sail for the Netherlands, where it was to pick up additional troops for the invasion of England. However, the English navy inflicted a defeat on the Armada in the Battle of Gravelines before this could be accomplished, and forced the Armada to sail far northward where it was ruined by weather.<br />
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Meanwhile across the Atlantic both Drake and Hawkins would die of disease during the disastrous 1595–96 expedition against Puerto Rico, Panama, and other targets in the Spanish Main. Continuing conflicts occurred in 1595, when a Spanish force, under Don Carlos de Amesquita raided Penzance and several surrounding villages. Then in 1596 an Anglo-Dutch expedition under Elizabeth's earl of Essex, sacked Cadiz, causing significant loss to the Spanish fleet, leaving the city in ruins. Despite English failure to capture a treasure fleet, the sack of Cadiz was celebrated as a national triumph comparable to an absolute victory. <br />
James I would declare war on Spain likewise and with the support of the House of Commons, attempt to cripple Spanish investiture by obtaining the sizeable seizures from the Inca, and Aztecan civilisation's (attributions of the Papacies missions with indigenous were scantly welcomed such as Father Ximénezs contributions of the Chilam Balam and Popul Vuh)
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With the signing of the Triple Alliance in 1596 between France, England and the Dutch, Elizabeth sent a further 2,000 troops into France after the Spanish invaded Calais in support. For another two years the battles continued until Henry IV's conversion to Catholicism had won him widespread French support and the French civil war turned against the hardliners of the Catholic League. With France and Spain's signing of the Peace of Vervins, the War of Religions particular factional disputes between the aristocratic houses, such as the House of Bourbon and House of Guise (Lorraine) ceased.<br />
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The War of the Spanish Succession would see the end of the Habsburg Kings of Spain 1516–1700. The conflict was triggered by the death in 1700 of the Spanish King (childless) Charles II, resulting in the Spanish empires partitioning between major and minor powers. The Austrians received most of Spain's former European realms, but peninsular Spain and Spanish America were retained for the Duke of Anjou when, after renouncing his claim to the French succession, he reigned as King Philip V. Charles II had had neither a pleasant life nor a successful reign. He was physically disabled, mentally retarded and disfigured, impotent, and he died senile and wracked by epileptic seizures, a fitting end only to a line with 16 generations of inbreeding. The Spanish Habsburg dynasty had started with the marriage between Philip I, also known as Philip the Fair, and Joanna I, also known as Joanna the Mad.
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Jason Steven Jowetthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06299966996014985455noreply@blogger.com0